BR  149  .M3  1914 
McGlothlin,  William  Joseph, 

1867-1933. 
A  guide  to  the  study  of 


A  Guide  to  the  Study 
of  Church  History 


( 


BY 

W.  J.  'McGLOTHLIN,  Ph.D.  (Berlin),  D.D. 

Professor  of  Church  History  in  the  Southern   Baptist  Theological  Seminary 
Louisville,   Ky. 


HODDER  &  STOUGHTON 

NEW  YORK 

GEORGE  H.  DORAN   COMPANY 


Copyright,  1914 
BY  GEORGE  H.  DORAN  COMPANY 


PREFACE 

The  first  edition  of  this  Guide  to  the  Study  of 
Church  History  appeared  in  1908.  Since  that  time  it 
has  been  subjected  to  the  test  of  constant  class  work. 
The  results  of  these  years  of  practical  use  have  now 
been  incorporated  in  this  new  and  thoroughly  revised 
edition.  The  study  of  church  history  has  made 
tremendous  progress  in  recent  years  and  seems  destined 
to  play  a  still  more  important  part  in  the  preparation 
of  young  ministers  for  their  work  and  in  its  influence 
on  subsequent  Christian  history.  It  is  hoped  that  this 
work  may  contribute  something  in  this  direction. 

As  the  title  indicates,  the  volume  is  Intended  to  be  a 
guide  to  students.  It  is  not  designed  to  take  the  place 
of  larger  works  or  to  render  lecturing  unnecessary,  but 
to  be  a  guide  to  the  best  known  manuals  and  a  basis 
for  lecturing.  The  effort  has  been  made  to  present 
the  essentials  of  church  history  in  a  form  so  compact 
as  to  appeal  to  the  eye  and  be  easily  remembered,  and 
at  the  same  time  to  direct  the  student  to  wider  reading 
on  the  various  subjects.  For  this  purpose,  four  of  the 
best  known  manuals,  representing  different  confes- 
sional view-points,  those  of  Newman  (Baptist),  Hurst 
(Methodist),  Kurtz  (Lutheran),  and  Alzog  (Catholic), 
have  been  selected  for  constant  reference,  with  occa- 
sional references  to  Schaff,  Moller,  and  other  works. 
There  are  also  references  to  some  of  the  most  important 
sources.    No  attempt  has  been  made  to  refer  to  a  wide 

3 


4  PREFACE 

range  of  works.  The  student  who  is  passing  through 
the  vast  field  of  church  history  for  the  first  time  can 
find  enough  to  do  with  the  references  given.  As  he 
advances  he  can  easily  enlarge  his  bibliography.  In 
order  to  secure  brevity  there  have  been  frequent  abbre- 
viations of  words  and  condensations  of  sentences,  but 
it  is  believed  that  no  obscurity  has  resulted.  The  needs 
of  students  in  theological  seminaries  have  been  steadily 
in  mind,  but  it  Is  hoped  that  others  may  find  the  work 
of  value.  Pastors  can  use  it  as  a  means  for  refreshing 
their  knowledge  of  the  great  subject  of  church  history 
in  the  midst  of  their  multiplied  duties. 

It  IS  earnestly  recommended  that  a  good  Historical 
Atlas  should  be  used  as  a  constant  companion  to  the 
work. 

The  necessity  for  immediate  printing  and  the  diffi- 
culties incident  to  the  absence  of  the  author  in  Europe 
in  the  midst  of  the  Great  War  during  the  final  stages 
of  the  press  work  must  be  accepted  as  an  apology 
for  any  minor  failures  in  proofreading. 

W.  J.  McGlothlin. 

Louisville,  Ky.,  September  lo,  19 14. 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Introduction . . . , 7-14 

BOOK  I 
Planting  Christianity — ^Apostolic  Era,  A.D,  i-ioo      14-27 

BOOK  II 
Ancient  Church  History  to  600  A.D 27-95 

BOOK  III 
Middle  Ages,  c.  600  to  c.  1517 99-187 

BOOK  IV 
The  Reformation,  1517-1648 191-333 

Appendix 337-345 

Index 349-359 


ABBREVIATIONS 

A. — Alzog's  Universal  Church  History. 

A.  N.  F. — Ante-Nicene  Fathers. 

C  C. — Schaff's  Creeds  of  Christendom. 

Henderson. — Henderson    Historical    Documents    of    the    Middle 

Ages. 
H. — Hurst's  History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
K. — Kurtz's  Church  History. 
M. — Moeller's  Church  History. 
N. — Newman's  Manual  of  Church  History. 
S. — Schaff's  Church  History. 

B.  C.  F. — McGlothlin,  Baptist  Confessions  of  Faith. 


INTRODUCTION 

I.    Nature,  History  and  Bibliography  of  Church 

History 

N.  i.  3-16;  H.  i.  1-22;  28-57;  A.  i.  1-7  and  10-233;  K.*  i.  i  and 

4f;  S.  i.  I,  3i,6t 

II.    Divisions  of  Church  History 

N.  i.  i6f;  H.  i.  23-27;  K.  i.  2f ;  A.  i.  8f;  S.  i.  2  and  5. 

The  history  of  Christianity  is  an  unbroken,  living 
moving  whole,  but  for  convenience  and  thoroughness 
of  study  it  is  divided  chronologically  and  also  according 
to  subject  matter.  Divisions  are  more  or  less  arbitrary 
and  artificial. 

1.  Chronologically.  A.  Apostolic  Christianity,  A.  D. 
i-ioo.  B.  Old  Catholic  period,  A.  D.  100-600.  (a) 
100-313.  (b)  313-600.  C.  Medieval  Christianity, 
A.  D.  600-1517.  (a)  600-850;  (b)  850-1050;  (c) 
1 050- 1 300;  (d)  1300-15 1 7.  D.  The  Reformation, 
A.  D.  1 5 17 — 1648.  E.  Modern  Christianity,  A.  D. 
1648  to  present,     (a J  1648-1789;  (b)  1789  to  present. 

2.  Division  of  Material.  (a7  Missionary  history,  in- 
cluding territorial  expansion  (foreign  missions),  fuller 
occupation  '(home  missions),  general  reception  (liter- 
ary opposition  and  corresponding  defenses,  persecution, 
etc.)'.  (b)  Church  government,  including  the  concep- 
tion of  the  church  and  its  ministers,  forms  of  organi- 
zation, officials,  ecclesiastical  law  and  discipline,  rela- 
tion to  State,  etc.  (c)  Worship,  including  forms  of 
worship  (oral  and  written,  sacred  poetry  and  music), 
time    (weekly    and    annual.    Christian    year),    place 

^Figures  refer  to  sections  in  K.,  A.  and  S. 

7 


8  INTRODUCTION 

(church  architecture  and  art),  instruction  (preaching, 
catechism,  etc.),  ceremonies  (baptism,  supper,  sacra- 
ments, etc.)-  (d)  Theology,  including  the  development 
of  systems  and  types  of  theology,  rise  of  heresies,  and 
various  fornis  of  anti-Christian  thought,  (e)  Christian 
life,  including  types  of  piety,  monasticism,  moral  ideals, 
practices,  etc.     (f)  Christian  literature. 

III.   The  World  Into  Which  Christianity  Came 

N.  i.  20-64;  H.  i.  58-87;  K.  i.  6-11;  A.  i.  23b-3i ;  S.  i.  8-14. 

The  conditions  which  Christianity  found  in  the 
Greco-Roman  world  determined  the  character  of  its 
history  for  several  centuries  and  have  profoundly 
affected  that  history  to  the  present  time.  The  human 
race  was  already  old  and  numerous,  differentiated  by 
color,  language,  culture,  religion,  mental  and  moral 
characteristics.  The  civilized  peoples  lived  on  a  strip 
of  land  some  twenty  degrees  in  width,  lying  southeast 
by  northwest  in  S.  Europe,  N.  Africa,  and  S.  Asia, 
most  of  it  in  N.  Temperate  zone.  In  E.  half  lay  India, 
China,  Japan,  in  W.  half  the  Semites,  Greeks,  and 
Romans.  The  two  portions  knew  and  influenced  each 
other  very  little.  Outside  this  strip  all  mankind  was 
barbarous  or  savage,  destitute  of  all  elements  of  civil- 
ized life,  such  as  settled  life,  written  language,  litera- 
ture, art,  architecture,  music,  the  sciences.  No  means 
exist  for  knowing  the  population  of  the  world  at  that 
time  even  approximately. 

Christianity  was  born  near  the  center  of  the  W. 
half  of  civilized  mankind.  Here  it  worked  for  five 
centuries  and  this  Greco-Roman  world  we  must  now 
study. 


INTRODUCTION  9 

1.  Politically  most  of  it  was  subject  to  the  Romans; 
lay  around  Mediterranean  with  c.  100,000,000  popula- 
tion. Its  government  consisted  of  (a)  central  authority 
— Emperor  and  Senate;  (b)  provincial  governors  ap- 
pointed by  emperor  and  senate;  (c)  local  municipal 
governments.  It  was  firm  and  in  the  main  just,  with 
much  local  freedom ;  brought  all  races  under  law,  pre- 
served order,  prevented  petty  internecine  strifes, 
suppressed  robbery,  built  good  roads,  kept  open  com- 
munications by  sea  and  land  between  all  parts  of  the 
Empire;  its  judges,  in  the  main,  just,  its  law  faithfully 
administered ;  it  was  regarded  by  early  Christians  as  a 
providential  preparation  for  the  coming  of  Christ.  Its 
law  and  legal  procedure  have  profoundly  influenced 
the  subsequent  history  of  Europe. 

2.  Races  and  Their  Distribution.  Many  peo- 
ples intermingled  and  greatly  mixed,  (i)  Latins  in 
Italy,  N.  Africa,  Spain  and  Gaul,  which  were  largely 
Latinized.  (Compare  their  languages.)  The  mili- 
tary and  governing  classes  everywhere  were  Romans; 
Latin  the  official  language.  (2)  Greeks  in  Greece  and 
its  islands,  Asia  Minor,  Syria,  N.  and  E.  Palestine, 
Egypt,  the  coasts  of  Italy,  Sicily,  Rome,  S.  E.  Gaul, 
and  elsewhere.  (3)  Jews  (a)  Palestinian  (b)  the  Dis- 
persion, mostly  commercial  people  in  the  cities  of 
Egypt,  Cyprus,  Syria,  Asia  Minor,  Greece,  Mace- 
donia, Italy,  Spain,  Mesopotamia,  Persia  and  farther 
East.  (4)  Other  Semites  (a)  Syrians  in  Syria  and 
Mesopotamia;  (b)  Arabs  in  Arabia;  (c)  Phoenicians 
in  Phoenicia  and  North  Africa;  (5)  other  native  popu- 
lations (a)  Celts  in  Gaul,  British  Islands  and  Galatia; 
(b)  Copts  in  Egypt;  (c)  Berbers  in  North  Africa;  (d) 


lo  INTRODUCTION 

various  native  peoples  in  Asia  Minor  and  Southeast 
Europe. 

Surrounding  the  Empire  were  the  Germans  on  the 
north,  still  barbarous;  on  the  east  the  Persians,  Par- 
thians,  Scythians;  on  the  south  various  desert  tribes 
in  Asia  and  Africa. 

3.  Social  AND  Economic  Conditions,  (i)  Many 
slaves,  white,  captives  in  war,  without  legal  rights,  and 
often  cruelly  treated;  (2)  woman  was  debased,  with 
few  rights,  often  immoral;  children  were  poorly  edu- 
cated and  little  regarded;  (3)  there  were  extremes  of 
wealth  and  poverty  (200,000  mendicants  in  Rome 
alone).  Agriculture,  manufacture  and  commerce  still 
primitive. 

4.  Culture.  The  masses  even  of  civilized  peoples 
were  everywhere  illiterate;  no  system  of  public  schools; 
education  was  in  private  schools  and  by  tutors;  books 
few  and  costly,  made  by  copying  with  the  hand ;  educa- 
tion was  literary,  rhetorical,  artificial.  Sources  of  cul- 
ture were  various :  ( i )  That  of  ancient  Egypt,  Baby- 
lonia, Assyria  and  Persia  had  largely  perished.  Only 
the  ruins  of  their  architecture  and  sculpture  remained. 
(2)  The  primitive  native  populations  had  never  pos- 
sessed much  culture.  (3)  The  culture  of  Persia  had 
affected  the  Empire  little,  that  of  India  and  of  China 
perhaps  not  at  all.  (4)  The  golden  age  of  Grecian 
culture  was  past,  but  the  language  had  been  widely  dif- 
fused by  commerce,  colonization  and  war  (Alexander), 
and  was  the  chief  vehicle  of  culture  for  that  world. 
The  elements  of  Greek  culture  were:  (a)  A  beautiful, 
flexible  and  expressive  language,  widely  distributed; 
(b)  an  extensive  literature,  which  still  serves  as  models 


INTRODUCTION  ii 

in  dramatic,  lyric  and  epic  poetry,  in  oratory  and  in 
history;  (c)  art  and  architecture  (Doric,  Ionic  and 
Corinthian)  ;  (d)  philosophy,  which  has  deeply  affected 
philosophy  and  theology  to  the  present  time.  The  most 
influential  philosophers  were  Pythagoras  (c.  582-510 
B.  C),  Socrates  (469-399),  Plato  (427-347),  Aristotle 
(384-322);  Zeno,  founder  of  the  Stoic  school  (340- 
260);  Epicurus  (342-270),  and  Pyrrho,  founder  of 
the  Skeptics  (360-270).  Philosophy  was  the  religion 
and  the  moral  support  of  the  more  intelligent — "a 
schoolmaster  to  bring  the  Greek  to  Christ."  (5)  Ro- 
mans, contributed  law,  stable  governmentj  internal 
order,  good  roads,  open  seas.  Their  literature  and 
philosophy  were  dependent  upon  Greek  models,  but 
Latin  ultimately  became  the  language  of  theology  and 
learning  for  the  Western  world,  and  held  that  position 
till  recently.  (6)  Jews  cannot  be  said  to  have  con- 
tributed anything  of  importance  to  culture.  Their 
contribution  was  in  the  realm  of  religion  and  morals. 

5.  Religion.  All  peoples  were  religious ;  their  reli- 
gions were  national;  i.  e.,  not  personal  or  universal. 
They  related  almost  exclusively  to  the  ordinary  affairs 
of  the  present  life — propitiating  the  gods  to  appease 
their  anger  and  enlist  their  aid  in  personal  and  national 
matters — for  health,  happiness,  good  crops,  victory, 
safety;  there  was  belief  in  future  life,  but  it  was 
shadowy,  uncertain  and  uninviting.  The  greater  gods 
were  national,  but  there  were  local  and  household  gods 
or  spirits,  e.  g.  nymphs  and  sprites  of  Greeks,  lares  and 
penates  of  Romans.  All,  except  Judaism,  were  poly- 
theistic, with  male  and  female  divinities  often  immoral; 
only  in  Judaism  was  there  union  of  morals  and  religion. 


12  INTRODUCTION 

All  had  sacrifices,  priesthoods,  temples,  sacred  seasons, 
more  or  less  ritual,  but  little  or  no  religious  instruction. 
Roman  conquests  and  commercial  intercourse  were 
breaking  down  religious  prejudices  by  bringing  all 
religions  into  contact  with  one  another.  ( i )  In  Greek 
religion  the  gods  were  personifications  of  the  powers 
of  nature  resting  on  a  semi-pantheistic  basis ;  aesthetic, 
intellectual,  but  morally  feeble;  inadequate  conception 
of  sin,  uncertain  belief  in  immortality;  rich  in  myth- 
ology, creative  of  beautiful  and  impressive  temple 
architecture  but  no  Bible,  distinctly  religious  literature 
or  religious  instruction.  (2)  In  Roman  religion  the 
gods  were  personifications  of  the  functions  of  society, 
the  reproduction  of  a  Roman  household;  public  wor- 
ship was  ceremonial  and  legal,  conducted  by  the  State ; 
emperor  worship  was  later  required  of  all  subjects; 
Roman  religion  much  more  serious  but  less  stimulating 
than  the  Greek ;  no  Bible,  religious  literature  or  instruc- 
tion. (3)  In  Jewish  religion:  (a)  One  living  God, 
holy,  the  creator  and  upholder  of  all  things ;  monothe- 
ism, (b)  high  moral  precepts  with  religious  sanction, 
(c)  hope  of  a  Messiah;  golden  age  in  the  future;  one 
temple,  a  priesthood,  ritual ;  synagogues  for  non-sacri- 
ficial worship  and  instruction;  Bible  and  instruction. 
(4)  Syrian,  Egyptian,  and  other  religions  were  widely 
distributed,  often  grossly  immoral,  rarely  elevating. 
Worship  of  Cybele,  Isis,  Mithra,  etc.,  was  spreading 
over  the  Empire.  Last  century  B.  C.  was  an  age  of 
skepticism,  but  through  efforts  of  Augustus  and  others, 
faith  in  the  fundamentals  of  religion  was  reviving  dur- 
ing the  first  Christian  century. 

6.  Morals.    Political  life  was  debased.    Provincial 


INTRODUCTION  13 

governors  often  became  rich  by  graft  and  oppression. 
The  Emperor,  often  made  by  the  army  and  controlled 
by  favorites,  slaves  and  concubines,  was  supreme  and 
growing  more  despotic  with  the  centuries ;  the  Senate 
and  subordinate  officials  subservient,  venal,  cringing. 
Amusements  among  Greeks  and  Romans  were  mostly 
outdoor  sports — gladiatorial  shows,  races,  the  theater — 
were  idolatrous  and  morally  degrading.  The  army  was 
efficient,  but  cruel,  war  almost  constant.  Slavery  was 
extensive  and  corrupting.  Literature  was  often  de- 
based ;  morals  had  little  religious  sanction.  There  was 
boundless  sexual  immorality  of  most  revolting  charac- 
ter, divorce,  low  regard  for  children;  abortion  fre- 
quent, exposure  and  murder  of  children  allowed ;  theft, 
graft,  oppression,  gambling,  and  drunkenness  were 
common. 

Into  this  world  came  Christianity  to  redeem  and 
transform  the  whole  life  of  the  whole  race.  It  grappled 
with  men  and  conditions  as  it  found  them,  with  what 
result  Christian  history  has  to  relate. 

IV.     Original  Primitive  Christianity 

What  was  this  new  historic  force  now  suddenly 
introduced  into  the  race?  In  a  word  it  was  Jesus  of 
Nazareth.  It  had  its  roots  deep  in  the  past,  but  as  a 
whole  it  was  a  new  religion  centering  in  the  teaching, 
person  and  work  of  Christ.  As  a  historic  force  it  may 
be  defined  as  a  life  and  a  hope,  based  on  a  faith,  and 
all  mediated  by  Jesus  Christ.  It  is  a  life  of  personal 
holiness,  and  of  love  and  service  to  men;  a  hope  of 
immortality  with  God  and  all  saints  in  heaven;  this  is 
all  based  on  a  faith  in  God  as  living,  almighty,  loving 


14  INTRODUCTION 

and  forgiving  and  all  is  mediated  by  Jesus  as  Teacher, 
Exemplar  and  Redeemer. 

The  action  and  reaction  of  this  original  Christianity 
and  the  world  upon  each  other  constitute  historic  Chris- 
tianity, and  are  the  subject  matter  of  Church  History. 
It  has  been  an  unbroken  stream  from  the  beginning 
until  now,  but  marked  by  continuous  development  and 
change.  The  course  of  that  development  we  study  in 
the  following  pages. 


BOOK  I 


IS 


BOOK  I 

PLANTING  CHRISTIANITY— APOSTOLIC 
ERA,  A.  D.  i-ioo 

Introduction 

No  great  political  changes  during  this  century.  Im- 
perial court  full  of  intrigue  and  corruption  to  Ves- 
pasian; Rhine  and  Danube  maintained  as  imperial 
boundaries ;  conquest  and  incorporation  of  Cappadocia 
in  A.  D.  17,  Britain  in  44  and  84,  Mauretania,  Thracia 
and  Lycia  in  reign  of  Claudius;  suppression  of  fre- 
quent uprisings  in  Gaul  and  elsewhere ;  Jewish  uprising 
in  66  suppressed  in  70;  Jerusalem  destroyed,  temple 
burned,  Jews  and  Christians  scattered ;  serious  uprising 
in  Gaul  in  68  suppressed  in  70 ;  Germans  remain  quiet 
for  ninety  years.  Burning  of  Rome  64,  splendidly  re- 
built. Moral,  religious,  social  and  economic  conditions 
not  materially  changed.  Christianity  worked  under 
fairly  stable  and  favorable  circumstances. 

I.    Planting  and  Spreading  of  Christianity 

N.  i.  67-124;  H.  i.  87-119;  K.  i.  11-16;  A.  i.  32-51;  S.  i.  15-21. 
(i)  Extension,  (a)  Work  of  Jesus  as  teacher, 
preacher,  healer,  from  Jerusalem  northward  in  Pales- 
tine, rejected  by  leaders,  fairly  successful  among 
masses,      (b)  From  crucifixion  to  death  of  Stephen, 

17 


i8  A  GUIDE  TO   THE   STUDY 

Pentecost,  (c)  From  death  of  Stephen  to  Jerusalem 
conference,  work  extends  into  N.  Syria  and  Asia 
Minor,  (d)  Work  of  Paul  and  associates ;  of  apostles ; 
of  nameless  missionaries.  Doubtless  spread  much 
farther  than  we  know;  known  to  have  extended  over 
Syria,  Asia  Minor  and  S.  Europe.  (2)  Missionary 
methods.     Travel,  preaching,  letters.      (3)   Message: 

(a)  to  Jews — Jesus  the  Christ,  redeemer  from  sin; 

(b)  to  Gentiles — Jesus,  Judge  and  Lord  and  Re- 
deemer. (4)  Means  of  support.  (5)  Success — num- 
ber of  Christians;  size,  location  and  character  of  the 
churches;  nationality,  social  and  intellectual  standing 
and  economic  condition  of  the  Christians.  (6)  Oppo- 
sition and  persecution ;  motives,  methods,  extent  of  this 
opposition:  (a)  By  Jews,  Sadducees,  Pharisees,  the 
Dispersion;  (b)  by  Gentiles;  mobs,  provincial  govern- 
ments, imperial  government;  by  Nero  (64),  by  Domi- 
tian  (96),  both  at  Rome  only. 

II.  The  Church — Its  Constitution  and  Officers 

N.  i.  125-135;  H.  i.  120-134;  K.  i.  17:  1-6;  A.  i.  52-54;  S.  1.  40-43- 

Ecclesia  (assembly,  church)  has  three  meanings  in 
N.  T. :  (a)  Whole  body  of  believers;  (b)  Christians 
in  a  given  city  or  geographic  unit;  (c)  Christians  wor- 
shiping in  one  place.  Second  meaning  is  most  common 
in  N.  T.  No  general  organization  as  association,  con- 
vention, national  or  denominational  church.  Unity 
and  harmony  measurably  preserved  by  visitation  and 
correspondence  of  apostles  and  others. 

I.  Members,  believers,  baptized  and  walking  or- 
derly ;  organized  on  basis  of  fraternal  equality,  a  priest- 


OF  CHURCH  HISTORY  19 

hood  of  believers,  together  exercising  all  ecclesiastical 
authority. 

2.  Officers,  (a)  General — Apostles,  prophets,  evan- 
gelists, teachers.  Some  of  these  may  have  been  func- 
tions rather  than  separate  offices,  (b)  Local — Elders 
or  Bishops  and  deacons.     Deaconesses  (?). 

Officers  did  not  form  a  special  priesthood  or  clerical 
order,  but  were  ministers  to  the  people.  Qualifications 
of  each;  how  chosen  and  ordained;  duties,  functions 
and  authority  of  each ;  relation  to  the  churches. 

3.  The  churches  were  wholly  independent  of  each 
other  and  the  State,  democratic  in  government  and 
discipline,  exercising  complete  ecclesiastical  authority, 
selecting  and  authorizing  their  own  officers. 

ni.    Doctrines 

H.  i.  135-141;  K.  i.  18;  A.  i.  58-61;  S.  i.  22-24. 

Doctrines  were  not  systematized  in  this  period;  no 
creed  or  confession ;  non-theological  age  of  Christianity. 

1.  Sources  of  doctrine  were  at  first  O.  T.  (outside 
Palestine  in  Greek,  with  apocrypha)  and  traditions  of 
the  teachings,  work,  sufferings,  resurrection  and  ascen- 
sion of  Jesus.  After  A.  D.  50  Christians  began  to 
produce  literature  (under  the  guidance  of  the  Spirit,  we 
believe),  which  speedily  became  sources  of  doctrine, 
and  in  2nd.  cent,  some  of  it  was  collected  and  put  with 
O.  T.  (in  Gk.),  making  the  Christian  Bible. 

2.  Contents  of  doctrine  were  determined  by  the  prac- 
tical demands  of  evangelization  and  instruction.  It  was 
not  systematic  and  speculative,  but  vital — doctrines 
rather  than  theology.  ( i )  God  as  one,  holy,  just  lov- 
ing and  merciful;  (2)  Man  as  sinful  and  lost;  (3) 


20  A  GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 

Jesns  as  the  Christ,  Son  of  man,  Son  of  God,  Redeemer 
and  Lord;  the  facts  of  his  earthly  Hfe;  his  death,  resur- 
rection and  ascension,  his  second  advent  and  judgeship; 
(4)  salvation  through  repentance  toward  God  and  faith 
toward  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ;  (5)  resurrection  of  the 
body  and  life  everlasting;  (6)  the  obligation  to  holiness 
and  loving  service. 

3.  Divergences.  Christians,  even  in  apostolic  era, 
not  entirely  harmonious  in  doctrine.  N.  T.  writers, 
while  in  essential  agreement,  differ  in  viewpoint  and 
emphasis  (cf.  James,  John,  Paul).  Other  Christians 
differed  fundamentally. 

(i)  Most  serious  divergence  was  about  relation  of 
Jewish  law  to  salvation.  Many  Jewish  Christians 
asserted  that  circumcision  and  observance  of  the  law 
by  Gentile  converts  was  necessary  to  their  salvation. 
Paul  led  opposition,  claiming  that  salvation  is  of  grace 
apart  from  works.  Decision  of  conference  at  Jeru- 
salem c.  51  A.  D.  (Acts  15)  was  victory  for  Paul, 
(a)  Things  required  (not  for  salvation) — abstention 
from  things  sacrificed  to  idols,  blood,  things  strangled, 
fornication,  (b)  Not  required — whole  Jewish  cere- 
monial law — sacred  seasons  (passover,  pentecost,  taber- 
nacles, new  moon,  Sabbath,  etc.),  sacrifices,  priesthood, 
temple  worship  and  support,  distinction  in  meats,  cir- 
cumcision, etc.  This  settlement  was  formal  recogni- 
tion of  the  fact  that  Christianity  had  broken  the  bands 
of  Judaism.  It  was  in  part  a  compromise,  some  of 
whose  requirements  Paul  did  not  observe  later  (cf. 
meats  offered  to  idols,  i  Cor. ) ;  nor  has  Christianity 
regarded  them  all  as  binding  (eating  blood). 

(2)  Other  errors  within  the  Christian  fold  were — 


OF  CHURCH  HISTORY  21 

denial  of  Christ's  divinity,  his  humanity,  the  resurrec- 
tion; the  worship  of  angels;  various  philosophical  and 
theosophical  speculations  detracting  from  the  exaltation 
of  Christ.  This  apparently  the  incipient  stage  of  Chris- 
tian gnosticism. 

4.  Various  divergencies  so  great  as  to  constitute 
heresies,  Simon  Magus,  Menander,  Dositheus,  Corin- 
thus,  the  Nicolaitans.  Apparently  guilty  of  both  doc- 
trinal and  moral  lapses  in  life  and  teaching.  Anti- 
nomian  teachings  probable,    cf.  Jude,  2  Peter. 

IV.     Worship  and  Ordinances 

N.  i.  135-142;  H.  i.  142-5;  K.  i.  17:  7;  A.  i.  56;  S.  i.  34-39. 

Social  worship  for  edification  and  instruction  a 
marked  characteristic  of  early  Christianity,  the  point 
where  it  touched  the  common  man  most  closely;  in- 
formal, democratic,  non-liturgical,  non-sacrificial. 

1.  Place — Temple  at  Jerusalem,  synagogue,  private 
houses,  school  buildings.  No  distinctive  church  build- 
ings in  this  period.  Missionary  preaching  and  propa- 
ganda in  market-places  and  in  private  houses. 

2.  Time — Sabbath,  first  day  (called  Lord's  day  on 
account  of  the  resurrection),  or  both;  often  at  night 
and  in  secret  because  of  persecution;  annual  religious 
festivals  as  continuation  of  Jewish  feasts  but  with 
Christian  meaning  {Passover  [later  called  Easter]  as 
feast  of  resurrection  and  Pentecost  as  feast  of  Holy 
Spirit). 

3.  Leader — Worship  was  apparently  informal, 
democratic,  shared  by  members  as  they  felt  moved,  cf. 
Corinth.   Women  did  not  teach  or  officiate,  but  some- 


22  A  GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 

times  prayed  and  prophesied,     cf.    i.  Cor.   11:5  and 

14:34. 

4.  Elements.  It  was  non-liturgical,  non-sacrificial, 
(i)  Reading  extensively  from  O.  T.  and  Christian 
writings.  (2)  Singing,  O.  T.  Psalms,  also  hymns  and 
spiritual  songs;  sung  by  individuals  or  the  congrega- 
tion; responsive  singing  early  in  second  and  probably 
in  first  century.  No  instrument.  (3)  Speech — In- 
struction, exhortation,  admonition,  prophesying,  speak- 
ing with  tongues,  etc.  No  catechism  or  special  instruc- 
tion for  children.  (4)  Extempore  prayers;  occasion- 
ally fasting. 

5.  Lord's  supper  or  eucharist  was  the  eating  of 
bread  (probably  unleavened)  and  drinking  of  wine 
(mingled  with  water),  consecrated  by  prayer;  cele- 
brated weekly  or  oftener  in  connection  with  other  wor- 
ship, but  no  fixed  time  required ;  early  connected  with 
agape  or  love  feast;  memorial  of  Christ's  death;  only 
baptized  believers  partook. 

6.  Baptism  was  the  only  other  early  Christian  cere- 
mony. Because  of  its  nature  it  was  not  directly  con- 
nected with  worship.  The  immersion  (possibly  trine) 
of  a  believer  in  water  in  the  name  of  Christ  or  the 
trinity,  as  soon  after  conversion  as  convenient,  as  a 
symbol  of  burial  and  resurrection  with  Christ  (Rom. 
6:4) ;  sometimes  followed  by  imposition  of  hands  for 
gift  of  H.  S. 

V.     Christian  Life  and  Discipline 

H.  i.  145-8;  K.  i.  17:8;  A.  i.  57;  S.  i.  32f,  44- 

The  Christian  ideal  is  a  life  of  purity  and  service, 
a  community  which  is  a  holy  fraternity.     Ideally  the 


OF  CHURCH   HISTORY  23 

churches  were  composed  of  saints,  the  holy;  actually 
they  did  not  attain  to  this  standard.  ( i )  Morals  were 
often  low ;  many  Gentile  converts  had  to  be  taught  first 
principles  of  good  morals;  sins  of  the  flesh  (especially 
drunkenness  and  unchastity)  and  of  the  spirit  (envy, 
jealousy,  hatred,  faction,  covetousness). 

2.  Slavery,  modified  but  not  forbidden.  No  word 
of  emancipation.     Slaves  and  masters  in  same  church. 

3.  Women  take  prominent  part  in  Christian  work 
and  worship.  Not  given  official  position  or  allowed  to 
teach.    Deaconesses. 

4.  Property  held  by  Christians.  Voluntary  com- 
munism at  Jerusalem  for  brief  period,  not  elsewhere; 
no  compulsory  communism. 

5.  Charities  extensive  (collection  for  poor  at  Jeru- 
salem). Care  of  widows,  orphans,  poor,  travelers,  per- 
secuted, etc.    Support  of  the  ministry. 

6.  Christians  withdrew  largely  from  heathen  so- 
ciety, theatres,  games,  temples,  religious  festivals,  etc. 

7.  Civil  Government  was  obeyed  and  respected  as 
ordained  of  God. 

8.  Discipline  for  moral  lapses  consisted  of  private 
admonition,  public  rebuke  and  finally  expulsion  of  the 
incorrigible  from  church  privilege  and  social  inter- 
course by  the  congregation  (cf.  Mt.  18:  15-17). 

VI.     Christian  Literature 

S.    i.    25-31. 

Written  in  Greek,  with  the  possible  exception  of 
Matthew,  largely,  if  not  wholly,  by  Christians  of  Jew- 
ish origin.  Some  of  the  literature  of  this  period  has 
been  lost.    Nearly  all  that  has  been  preserved  is  found 


24  A  GUIDE  TO  THE  STUDY 

in  N.  T. ;  not  marked  by  great  literary  finish.  Four 
kinds:  (i)  Brief,  fragmentary  accounts  of  the  Hfe  and 
teachings  of  Jesus,  Gospels.  (2)  Letters  to  individuals, 
churches,  groups  of  churches  called  forth  by  special 
circumstances,  but  usually  intended  for  a  more  or  less 
general  circulation;  e.  g.,  Eph.  and  Col.  (3)  One 
brief,  fragmentary  history,  largely  devoted  to  the  do- 
ings of  Paul,  Acts.  It  gives  no  adequate  conception  of 
the  spread  of  Christianity  as  a  whole.  (4)  Apocalyp- 
tic literature,  Rev. 

These  books  were  not  gathered  into  one  volume  until 
later.  They  were  not  part  of  a  sacred  book,  a  Bible, 
but  each  had  only  its  own  authority. 


BOOK  II 


33 


BOOK  II 

ANCIENT  CHURCH  HISTORY  TO  600  A.  D. 

First  Period  100-323  A.  D. 

/.     General  Conditions  During  Period 

I.  Political.  Order  and  prosperity  prevailed  under 
"five  good  emperors"  (96-180),  who  were  devoted  to 
welfare  of  their  subjects.  Trajan,  able  general  and 
ruler,  first  Emp.  from  provinces;  in  105  province  of 
Arabia,  107  Dacia  conquered  and  colonized  (now  Rou- 
mania) ;  war  with  Parthians  (11 4- 116)  resulted  in  in- 
corporation of  Armenia,  Mesopotamia  and  Assyria  as 
provinces;  Empire  reaches  widest  extent;  T.  great 
builder  at  Rome  and  elsewhere.  Hadrian,  peace-lov- 
ing, careful  in  administration,  gives  up  Armenia,  Meso- 
potamia and  Assyria  making  Euphrates  E.  boundary; 
Jewish  rebellion  in  11 5-1 17;  that  of  Barcocheba 
(132-5)  on  account  of  founding  Aelia  Capitolina; 
splendid  buildings  at  Rome,  Athens  and  elsewhere. 
Marcus  Aurelius,  philosopher-emperor,  compelled  to 
fight  Parthians  on  the  E.  border  (162-5)  and  the  Ger- 
mans on  Danube  (Marcomanni,  Cenadi)  with  variable 
fortunes  (166-180). 

Commodus  made  peace  with  Germans  and  gave 
himself  to  debauchery  and  cruelty  in  Rome.  The 
next  ninety  years  marked  by  great  disorders,  the 
government  passing  through  military  rule  to  absolute 
monarchy.  Emperors  called  out  by  divisions  of  the 
army,  usually  provincials,  often  murdered;  frequent 

27 


28  A  GUIDE  TO  THE  STUDY 

civil  war;  frequent  struggles  with  Germans  on  Rhine 
and  Danube  (Goths  on  lower  Danube,  Alamanni  in 
N.  Italy,  Franks  and  others  along  the  Rhine)  ;  on  E. 
border  with  Parthians  and  (after  226)  with  new 
Persian  Empire  (Sassanides).  Dissolution  of  Empire 
appeared  imminent  c.  260. 

Aiirelian,  "restorer  of  the  Empire,"  made  peace  with 
Goths  by  giving  up  Dacia  and  removing  most  colonists 
into  Moesia  (Danube  henceforth  the  boundary),  ex- 
pelled Germans  from  Italy  and  Gaul,  reconquered  Syria 
and  Egypt.  Tacitus,  Probus  and  Carus  (275-283) 
carry  forward  work  of  restoration,  driving  out  enemies. 

Diocletian  (284-305),  founder  of  the  absolute 
monarchy,  deprives  senate  of  all  power,  removes  capi- 
tal from  Rome  (to  Milan  and  Nicomedia),  reduces  size 
and  increases  number  of  provinces,  increases  taxes, 
introduces  elaborate  Oriental  court  ceremonial;  reor- 
ganizes government  by  choosing  another  Augustus  and 
in  292  two  Ccesars;  resignation  of  the  two  emperors 
(305)  followed  by  frightful  civil  wars  to  323  when 
Constantine  becomes  sole  emperor. 

2.  Economic  and  Social.  The  period  was  marked 
by  the  gradual  rise  of  the  provincials;  most  emperors 
from  the  provinces;  Caracalla  bestowed  Roman  citi- 
zenship on  all  freemen  in  the  empire  212.  Frequent 
civil  and  foreign  wars  decimated,  corrupted  and  Im- 
poverished the  people.  Germans  more  and  more  intro- 
duced themselves  by  peaceful  Immigration  into  agri- 
culture, the  army  and  governmental  positions ;  western 
provinces  were  being  Germanized.  Italy  and  the  old 
Roman  race  losing  their  significance.  Slavery,  immo- 
rality, war  and  taxation  were  ruining  agriculture,  re- 


OF  CHURCH  HISTORY  29 

ducing   population,    destroying   the   state,    corrupting 
social,  civil  and  family  life  from  200  onward. 

3.  Religious.  Revival  of  the  old  religions  after  100; 
worship  of  emperor  (regarded  as  embodiment  of 
human  and  divine  authority,  political  and  religious; 
pontifex  maximus  but  deified  after  death)  was  made 
universally  obligatory ;  many  cults  from  the  East,  espe- 
cially worship  of  Isis  and  Osiris  from  Egypt  and 
Mithra  from  Persia;  they  were  much  more  emotional 
and  personal  than  the  old  faiths,  missionary,  tran- 
scending national  boundaries.  Extensive  syncretism 
after  200  (Alex.  Sev.). 

4.  Cultural.  Education  was  more  generally  diffused 
throughout  the  Empire  than  formerly,  under  patronage 
of  the  State  in  part,  but  was  literary  and  artificial  with 
little  beneficial  effects  on  character.  After  100  rapid 
decline  of  Greek  and  Latin  literature,  few  writers, 
none  of  great  ability.  Production  of  pagan  literature 
ceased  after  ca.  250,  with  exception  of  new  Platonism 
which  extended  into  next  century.  (Plotinus  d.  270, 
Porphyry  305 )  ;  this  the  last  effort  of  heathen  philoso- 
phy. It  was  a  revival  of  Platonism  modified  in  the 
direction  of  religion;  based  on  ecstatic  insight  and  mys- 
tical revelation,  closely  related  to  thaumaturgy  and 
theosophy. 

II.     History  of  Christianity  During  Period 

(I)    External  History 

I.     Spread  of  Christianity — Missions 

N.  i.  29if;  H.  i.  397-409;  K.  i.  21;  A.  i.  62-65;  S.  i.  46-49. 

(i)  Among  Jews,  Christianity  made  no  further 
progress.     The  calamities  of  70-135  made  them  inac- 


30  A  GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 

cessible  to  the  gospel,  while  their  persecution  of  the 
Christians  embittered  the  latter  against  them.  Most 
Jewish  Christians  were  gradually  absorbed  by  Gentile 
Christian  circles;  the  remainder  (Nazarenes,  Ebion- 
ites)  became  heretics  and  disappeared  in  4th  century. 

(2)  Among  Gentiles,  Christianity  spread  over  whole 
of  Empire  and  beyond  its  borders  eastward;  at  first 
and  chiefly  among  Greeks;  three  translations  of  Scrip- 
ture mark  its  entrance  among  other  races:  (a)  Syriac 
for  the  native  population  of  N.  Syria  and  Mesopo- 
tamia; (b)  two  Coptic  translations  for  natives  of 
middle  and  upper  Egypt;  (c)  Latin  translations,  made 
in  N.  Africa,  spreading  to  Italy,  Gaul,  Spain,  and 
elsewhere.  Authors  and  dates  of  these  translations 
unknown;  the  work  probably  done  gradually  by  mis- 
sionaries in  2nd  half  of  2nd  century.  By  end  of  this 
period  there  were  Christians  in  Palestine,  Phoenicia, 
Coele-Syria,  Cyprus,  Mesopotamia,  Persia,  Parthia, 
India,  Arabia,  Egypt,  Africa,  throughout  Asia  Minor 
and  in  Armenia;  in  all  parts  of  Greece,  in  Italy,  the 
provinces  S.  of  Danube,  in  various  parts  of  Gaul,  Bel- 
gium, Spain  and  Britain;  most  numerous  in  Asia 
Minor,  Cyprus,  and  around  the  -^gean,  there  consti- 
tuting almost  half  the  population;  numerous  in  Egypt, 
Africa  about  Carthage,  S.  Spain,  and  at  a  few  points 
in  Gaul  and  Italy.  Elsewhere  they  were  very  sparse; 
estimated  at  from  one-twentieth  to  one-fifth  of  the 
total  population  of  the  Empire.  Alexandria,  Antioch 
and  Edessa  in  East,  Ephesus  and  Corinth  in  Center, 
Rome  and  Carthage  in  West,  the  chief  Christian  cities. 
The  cultured,  the  rich,  the  civil  and  military  officials, 
soldiers,  the  imperial  court  and  upper  classes  generally 


OF  CHURCH  HISTORY  31 

were  more  and  more  affected.  Abgar  IX,  king  of 
Edessa  ca.  200,  Constantine  ca.  312  become  Christians. 
This  splendid  work  was  accomplished  in  the  face  of 
vested  interests,  established  religions,  debased  social 
and  moral  life  and  hostile  governments,  without  mis- 
sionary boards  or  paid  missionaries,  much  of  the  time 
without  church  buildings,  public  services,  trained 
preachers  or  governmental  protection.  How?  The 
world  was  prepared,  and  the  common  Christians  had 
great  zeal.  Their  mutual  love  and  helpfulness,  care  for 
the  poor  and  unfortunate,  steadfastness  in  persecution, 
high  morality,  and  fraternal  spirit  made  a  profound 
impression;  but  it  was  chiefly  the  gospel  itself  that 
appealed  to  that  heathen  world.  It  was  a  gospel  of 
healing  for  soul  and  body,  of  redemption  from  sin  and 
the  demons,  of  mystery  in  the  two  ordinances,  a  re- 
vealed religion  based  on  a  book  and  therefore  author- 
itative, giving  assurance  of  immortality  and  a  rational 
scheme  for  the  future  life,  a  rational  explanation  of 
the  universe,  a  righteous  and  loving  God,  a  personal 
Savior.    It  satisfied  the  best  aspirations  of  men. 

2.     Opposition 

Christianity  was  long  and  bitterly  opposed  by  the 
masses  as  well  as  by  the  wealthy  and  educated  classes. 

(i)  Causes  of  Opposition:  (a)  Christians  re- 
nounced and  opposed  the  heathen  religions;  (b)  with- 
drew largely  from  heathen  society;  (c)  having  no 
images,  they  were  regarded  as  atheists;  (d)  preached 
what  seemed  to  the  heathen  foolish  and  unreasonable 
doctrines,  e.  g.,  resurrection,  incarnation,  worship  of 
crucified  Jew;   (e)    injured  certain  trades  dependent 


32 


A  GUIDE  TO  THE  STUDY 


upon  idolatry;  (f)  were  thought  to  commit  horrible 
deeds,  e.  g.,  eating  children,  promiscuous  intercourse; 
(g)  were  thought  to  cause  various  calamities,  e.  g., 
earthquakes,  floods,  famine,  pestilence,  etc.;  (h)  the 
simple  Christians  professed  to  know  more  of  the  vital 
things  of  life  than  the  philosophers  and  were  offensively 
enthusiastic;  (i)  every  new  religion  required  a  license, 
and  Christianity  was  never  licensed;  (j)  it  frequently 
caused  unrest  and  uproars;  (k)  Christians  refused  to 
worship  the  image  of  the  emperor,  a  service  required 
by  the  state,  thus  becoming  guilty  of  high  treason; 
(1)  it  was  dissolving  and  recasting  society  and  govern- 
ment wherever  it  went;  (m)  Christians  held  secret 
meetings  thought  to  be  politically  dangerous,  most 
Christians  avoided  civil  and  military  service;  (n)  there 
doubtless  remained  an  unexplained  residuum  of  op- 
position due  to  the  antipathy  of  a  sinful  heart  to  a 
cleansing  gospel. 

(2)  Methods  of  Opposing  Christianity 
This  opposition  expressed  itself  in  every  possible 
way — social  ostracism,  oral  discussions,  injury  to  posi- 
tion and  business,  persecution,  literary  attacks,  etc. 
The  most  important  were  persecution  and  literary 
attack. 

a.     Persecutions 

N.  i.  147-172;  H.  i.  153-179;  K.  i.  22;  A.  i.  66f ;  S.  i.  50-59- 

a  Mode  of  Procedure.  Christians  suffered  most 
perhaps  from  mob  violence,  but  some  of  the  persecu- 
tion was  by  the  government,  provincial  and  imperial; 
not  by  regular  legal  processes,  but  under  administra- 
tive regulations,  after  manner  of  police  courts.    Tra- 


OF  CHURCH  HISTORY  33 

jan*s  regulations  (ca.  112),  which  made  Christianity 
formally  illegal  and  were  the  basis  of  all  subsequent 
state  persecutions,  were  as  follows:  (a)  Christians  as 
such  not  to  be  sought  out  by  officials,  but  (b)  when 
accused  and  convicted  they  were  to  be  executed;  (c) 
those  who  deny  being  Christians  or  renounce  Chris- 
tianity and  sacrifice,  to  be  freed  without  reference  to 
the  past;  (d)  anonymous  accusations  not  to  be  con- 
sidered (Pliny  Eps.  96,  97;  Euseb.  HI,  33,  note,  Mc- 
Giffert's  ed. ) ;  this  left  matter  to  provincial  governors 
and  occasioned  local  sporadic  persecutions  (Symeon  of 
Jerusalem  107,  Ignatius  115).  Hadrian  (cf.  Euseb. 
IV.  9)  and  Antoninus  Pius  more  favorable  to  Xns. 
Under  M.  Aurelius  many  national  calamities  (confla- 
grations, floods,  earthquakes,  insurrections,  pestilence)' 
precipitated  severe  persecutions.  (In  Asia  Minor  167, 
Polycarp;  Lyons  &•  Vienne  177,  Pothinus,  Blandina, 
and  others,  cf.  Euseb.  VIL  3).  Justin  at  Rome 
166.  Some  persecutions  under  Sep.  Severus  at  Alex- 
andria in  202  (Leonides,  Potamiana)  and  at  Carthage 
(Perpetua,  Felicitas).  Peace  (except  under  Maximus) 
202-250. 

Almost  continuous  imperial  persecution  250-260 
under  Decius,  Callus  and  Valerian,  an  effort  to  destroy 
Christianity  utterly  throughout  the  Empire.  Numerous 
martyrs  (Fabian,  Sixtus  II,  and  Lawrence  of  Rome, 
Cyprian  of  Carthage),  hosts  of  confessors,  lapsed, 
libellatici.  For  43  years  after  260  was  peace.  Diocle- 
tian, at  first  favorable  to  Christians,  was  persuaded  by 
Galerius  to  issue  four  successive  decrees,  303,  ordering 
churches  destroyed,  Scriptures  burned,  depriving  Xns. 
of  public  office  and  civil  rights,  ordering  all  to  sacrifice 


34  A  GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 

on  pain  of  death ;  throughout  Empire  except  in  Britain, 
Gaul  and  Spain.  Terrible  suffering  and  ruin  of  the 
churches.  Edict  of  Galerius  311  (Euseb.  VIII,  17) 
giving  peace;  that  of  Constantine  313  at  Milan  (Euseb. 
X.  5.)  giving  religious  freedom,  restoring  confiscated 
property,  etc. ;  end  of  persecution  in  Roman  Empire, 
the  emperor  a  Christian. 

b.  Modes  of  Punishment,  (a)  Confiscation  of 
property,  (b)  Banishment,  (c)  Imprisonment,  (d) 
Labor  in  the  mines,  (e)  Torture,  (f)  Execution 
by  fire,  wild  beasts  and  for  Roman  citizens  by  the 
sword. 

c.  Results,  (a)  Many  Christians  suffered  death 
— martyrs;  some  courted  martyr's  death;  (b)  many 
more  suffered  punishment  of  various  kinds  short  of 
death — confessors;  (c)  multitudes  renounced  Christi- 
anity permanently  or  temporarily — lapsed;  (d)  many 
bribed  the  officers  or  purchased  certificates  stating  that 
they  had  sacrificed  to  the  gods — libellatici;  some  de- 
livered up  copies  of  Scriptures — traditores.  The 
church  was  laid  waste  far  and  wide.  Differences  of 
opinion  concerning  the  treatment  of  the  penitent  lapsed 
caused  schism  and  strife  in  the  churches.  Novatianism 
255  in  Rome  and  Donatism  305  in  N.  Africa;  no  means 
of  fixing  the  number  of  martyrs. 

b.    Literary  Attacks 

H.  i.  180-9;  K.  i.  23f;  A.  i.  68;  S.  i.  60-2. 

There  were  frequent  oral  attacks  by  Jews  and  hea- 
then, but  no  anti-Christian  books  by  Jews  have  been 
preserved.  No  heathen  writer  of  first  century  men- 
tions Christianity.    The  first  to  do  so  was  the  younger 


OF  CHURCH  HISTORY  35 

Pliny  ca.  112  who  regards  it  as  a  base  and  obstinate 
superstition;  Tacitus  (d.  117),  Epictetus  (d.  120),  M. 
Aiirelius  (d.  180)  and  Galen  (d.  ca.  200),  evidently 
despise  the  whole  movement.  Lucian  (d.  ca.  200), 
the  skeptic,  satirized  Christians  as  silly  and  gullible, 
rather  than  criminal  or  dangerous  (Peregrinus  Pro- 
teus). Celsus,  a  philosopher,  in  True  Discourse  (c. 
177)  undertook  seriously  to  refute  Christianity  be- 
cause of  its  menace  to  the  state.  Answered  by  Origen 
c.  250.  The  neo-platonist.  Porphyry,  c.  270  wrote 
15  books  against  Christians,  who  regarded  him  as  their 
most  dangerous  opponent;  Hierocles,  governor  of 
Bithynia,  wrote  two  books  against  Christians,  c.  305. 
Most  of  this  literature  has  perished,  except  as  quoted 
by  Christian  apologists. 

Jews  attacked  the  character,  Messiahship  and  divinity 
of  Jesus,  the  whole  attack  being  directed  against  him; 
heathen  attacked  the  Christian  conception  of  God,  the 
Scriptures,  the  character  and  history  of  Jesus,  the  idea 
of  an  incarnation,  the  character  and  ideals  of  the  Chris- 
tians. Every  important  objection  which  has  ever  been 
made  to  Christianity  was  raised  in  this  period. 

3.     Christian  Defenses 
N.  i.  237-46;  H.  i.  191-206;  S.  i.  63-6;  A.  i.  6g. 

(i)  Never  by  force  of  arms.  No  uprising  or  sign 
of  disloyalty.  (2)  By  heroic  and  patient  suffering — 
passive  resistance.  (3)  By  literary  defenses — apolo- 
gies. From  130-250:  (a)  They  denied  all  charges  of 
immorality,  atheism,  irreligion,  political  intrigue  or 
other  evil,  and  asserted  their  loyalty  to  the  state;  (b) 
demanded   the   trial    of   each    Christian   on   criminal 


36  A   GUIDE   TO   THE   STUDY 

charges  rather  than  condemnation  on  the  basis  of  the 
name  Christian;  (c)  explained  and  defended  Chris- 
tian doctrines  and  practices  on  the  basis  of  reason  and 
Scripture,  and  set  forth  the  excellence  of  Christian 
morals;  (d)  attacked  the  absurdities  and  immoralities 
of  the  heathen  religions  and  the  errors  and  inconsist- 
encies of  the  philosophers. 

These  apologies  were  written  both  by  Greeks  and 
by  Latins — Greeks  wrote  in  second  century  and  were 
for  the  most  part  philosophers;  Latins  mostly  in  the 
third  century  and  were  rhetoricians.  The  most  im- 
portant Greeks  are  Aristides  of  Athens,  c.  138;  Justin, 
originally  of  Palestine,  martyred  c.  165  (two  apologies 
to  emperors,  147  and  after,  and  Dialogue  with  Trypho 
the  Jew) ;  Tatian  the  Assyrian  c.  172;  Athenagoras  of 
Athens  c.  177;  Theophilus  of  Antioch,  wrote  to 
Autolycus  c.  190.  The  Latin  apologists  lived  in  N. 
Africa  and  were  Tertullian  who  wrote  his  apology 
c.  197;  Minuciiis  Felix  who  wrote  Octavius  c.  180. 
Many  others  wrote  apologies  along  with  other  writings. 

(II)     The  Church,  Its  Polity,  Officers, 
Ordinances 

As  time  passed  and  Christianity  spread  it  was  itself 
constantly  changing.  The  changes  were  rapid  and 
radical,  profoundly  modifying  many  of  the  funda- 
mental conceptions  of  Apostolic  Christianity  and  lay- 
ing the  foundation  for  the  Roman  and  Greek  Catholic 
Churches.  The  evolution  begins  early  and  continues 
throughout  the  period. 

I.  The  Church.  Independence  and  significance 
of  individual  churches  are  lost  in  the  predominance 


OF  CHURCH  HISTORY  '37 

and  power  of  the  great  city  churches;  these  in  turn 
are  merged  into  one  universal  (Catholic)  church  con- 
taining all  Christians.  It  is  conceived  of  as  an  entity 
in  itself,  independent  of  its  members,  holy,  indivisible 
and  inviolate,  no  longer  a  community  of  saved,  but  a 
saving  institution  outside  of  which  there  is  no  salva- 
tion; not  the  members,  but  the  institution  is  holy,  the 
indivisible  body  of  Christ,  whose  essence  and  unity 
is  in  the  episcopate;  it  is  the  only  mediator  of  grace; 
great  emphasis  on  its  unity,  to  attempt  to  rend  it  is  the 
greatest  sin,  and  to  cut  oneself  off  from  it  is  to  lose  all 
hope  of  salvation.  Government  of  the  church  passes 
rapidly  into  the  hands  of  the  clergy,  leaving  the  laity 
with  little  ecclesiastical  significance. 

The  first  general  organizations  were  diocesan  and 
provincial  synods  which  begin  to  be  held  about  the 
middle  of  2nd  century,  and  become  a  fixed  institution 
by  end  of  period.  Questions  in  dispute  locally  or 
affecting  Christianity  at  large  were  considered,  and  the 
decisions  were  regarded  with  great  respect  and  soon 
became  binding.  Several  synods  of  importance  in  this 
period.    Elvira  306  (?),  Aries  314,  Ancyra  314. 

2.   Officers 
H.  i.  325-40;  K.  i.  34;  A.  i.  82-87;  S.  i.  105-113. 
Development   rapid,   but   not   everywhere  uniform, 
both  as  to  number  and  functions  of  officers. 

(i)  Number,  (a)  The  old  general  travelling  offi- 
cers, apostles,  prophets,  evangelists,  etc.,  continue  into 
this  period,  but  disappear  by  end  of  2nd  century,  (b) 
The  two  officers  of  the  local  apostolic  church  become 
three  (one  bishop,  a  college  of  presbyters  and  a  board 


38  A  GUIDE  TO  THE  STUDY 

of  deacons)  during  first  half  of  2nd  century  (first  in 
Ignatius). 

(c)  Five  nezv  officers  developed  in  larger  churches 
by  250  A.  D. — Snhdeacons,  assistants  of  deacons; 
Acolytes,  assistants  of  bishops;  Exorcists,  Readers, 
Janitors.  These  were  selected  by  the  bishop,  were  not 
ordained,  exercised  no  priestly  functions. 

(2)  Qualifications.  To  have  only  clinic  baptism, 
to  be  legally  bound  to  civil  or  military  office,  to  have 
been  twice  married,  to  have  committed  heinous  sin 
after  baptism,  to  have  mutilated  oneself  or  to  be  a 
slave  was  regarded  as  a  bar  to  the  clergy  before  end 
of  period.  In  general  the  candidate  must  be  sound  in 
mind  and  body,  of  good  moral  character,  selected  from 
the  congregation  where  he  was  to  officiate;  to  be  a 
bishop  he  must  be  thirty  years  of  age. 

(3)  Election  of  deacons  and  presbyters  was  by 
people  and  clergy;  that  of  the  bishops  was  (a)  some- 
times by  local  laity,  especially  early  in  period,  (b)  by 
local  clergy,  with  approval  of  laity,  (c)  by  neighboring 
bishops,  with  approval  of  local  clergy  and  laity.  As 
yet  civil  government  did  not  interfere  with  elections. 

(4)  Ordination  of  presbyters  and  deacons  was  by 
their  bishop;  that  of  bishop  was  by  (a)  neighboring 
bishops,  at  least  three,  and  (b)  later,  by  Metropolitan 
and  neighboring  bishops. 

(5)  Functions.  Deacons,  presbyters  and  bishops 
came  to  be  called  clergy  (elect),  while  other  Chris- 
tians were  only  laity  (people)  ;  ministers  above  deacon 
begin  to  be  called  priest  about  200,  set  apart  by  special 
grace  conferred  in  ordination,  standing  between  God 
and  the  people,  necessary  mediators  of  grace,  officially 


OF  CHURCH  HISTORY  39 

holy.  a.  Bishops  (a)  act  as  head  and  presiding  officer 
in  the  government  of  the  church,  (b)  administer  the 
finances,  (c)  administer  confirmation,  ordination,  con- 
secrate holy  oil,  churches,  etc.;  (d)  sit  and  vote  in 
synods,  (e)  preach.  In  addition  to  these  exclusive 
privileges,  they  could  perform  the  functions  of  the 
other  officers.  The  essence  of  the  church  was  thought 
to  be  in  them.  Cyprian  says:  "The  bishop  is  in  the 
church  and  the  church  in  the  bishop." 

b.  Presbyters  lose  greatly  in  dignity  and  position 
in  this  period.  Their  functions  come  to  be  (a)  the 
conduct  of  worship  on  ordinary  occasions  and  in  sub- 
ordinate churches  (parishes),  (b)  administration  of 
ordinances,  (c)  instruction  of  the  people,  (d)  advising 
bishops  in  diocesan  and  provincial  synods,  (e)  assisting 
in  ordination  of  other  presbyters. 

c.  Deacons  belonged  to  clergy,  but  not  to  priest- 
hood; they  assisted  in  finances,  in  administration  of 
the  Lord's  Supper,  etc. 

d.  Before  end  of  period  the  office  of  metropolitan 
or  archbishop  had  been  developed  in  certain  quarters. 
Except  in  N.  Africa,  where  the  office  belonged  to  the 
bishop  oldest  in  service,  he  was  the  bishop  of  the 
capital  or  metropolitan  city  of  a  political  province,  and 
had  the  superintendence  of  all  the  bishops  (called  suf- 
fragans) in  that  province.  The  special  duties  of  the 
metropolitan,  as  developed  in  this  and  the  next  periods, 
were  (a)  ordination  of  his  sufiFragans,  who  in  turn 
ordained  their  metropolitan,  (b)  deciding  disputes 
among  suffragans,  (c)  calling  and  presiding  over  pro- 
vincial synods,  which  were  usually  held  twice  a  year, 
(d)  several  other  minor  duties. 


40  A  GUIDE  TO  THE  STUDY 

e.  The  Church  in  Rome  was  early  the  most  influen- 
tial church  in  Christendom,  due  to  (a)  its  excellent 
character,  strength  and  helpfulness,  (b)  its  location 
in  the  eternal  city,  the  capital  of  the  world,  (c)  the 
absence  of  any  other  great  church  in  the  West  as  a 
rival,  (d)  the  fact  that  it  was  an  apostolic  church, 
supposed  to  have  been  founded  by  Peter  and  Paul,  the 
greatest  apostles,  martyred  and  buried  there.  Toward 
the  end  of  the  period  it  began  to  be  asserted  that  Peter 
was  first  bishop  of  the  church.  But  during  this  period 
the  Roman  bishop,  although  widely  influential,  had  no 
more  authority  and  legal  rights  than  the  great  metro- 
politans in  the  East.  He  had  no  jurisdiction  over 
other  churches,  except  in  the  immediate  neighborhood 
of  Rome. 

3.  Ordinances.  During  this  period  the  ordinances 
become  mysteries,  with  magical  powers,  and  are  sur- 
rounded with  more  and  more  ceremonies  and  super- 
stitious reverence,  and  are  more  and  more  bound  to  the 
officers  in  administration. 

(i)    Baptism.     (K.  i.  35;  A.  i.  88f;  S.  i.  I03f.y 

a.  Act.  Prevailingly  immersion,  often,  if  not  usually, 
trine;  pouring  allowed  in  lieu  of  baptism  first  c.  120 
A.  D.,  where  there  was  not  sufficient  water  to  immerse, 
and  later  in  cases  of  supposed  fatal  illness  (Novatian 
250).  Tertullian  is  the  first  to  mention  holy  water 
(de  bap.  4). 

b.  Subject.  Usually  believers  who  as  catechumens 
had  been  instructed  in  Christian  doctrines;  but  infant 
baptism  appears,  first,  possibly  in  Irenseus  (Her.  2 122), 
probably  in  Tertullian  (de  bap.)  and  Origen,  but  first 
certainly  in  Cyprian,  c.  250  A.  D. 


OF  CHURCH  HISTORY  41 

c.  Administrator.  The  bishop  (Ig.  Smyr.  8 J,  or 
some  one  authorized  by  him  (presbyter,  deacon  or  lay- 
man. Tert.  de  bap.,  17).  Importance  of  baptism  as 
means  of  salvation  causes  tendency  to  greater  freedom 
as  to  administrator. 

d.  Significance.  By  150  it  is  thought  to  secure 
remission  of  sins;  sanctifies,  illuminates,  perfects 
(Justin),  washes  away  all  previous  sin,  regenerates; 
without  it  salvation  is  impossible  (Hermas,  Cyprian). 
It  begins  to  be  called  sacrament  (military  oath). 

e.  Additional  Ceremonies,  (a)  Preceding.  Extend- 
ed instruction  for  two  or  three  years  (catechumens) ; 
fasting;  renunciation  of  the  devil,  his  pomp  and  his 
angels  (face  westward) ;  vow  of  obedience  to  Christ 
and  repetition  of  creed  (face  eastward),  (b)  Follow- 
ing. Anointing  and  imposition  of  hands  for  gift  of 
Holy  Spirit  (in  West  by  bishop  only),  clothes  white 
for  a  week,  kiss  of  peace,  tasting  of  milk  and  honey 
(Tert.  de  bap.  and  de  Corona,  3). 

f.  Time.  Any  time,  but  in  West  Easter  and  Pente- 
cost and  in  East  Epiphany  specially  recommended 
(Tert.  de  bap.). 

g.  Heretical  Baptism.  Opinion  divided  as  to  its  va- 
lidity and  reception.  About  250  N.  Africa  and  Asia 
Minor  opposed,  Rome  and  other  regions  favored  its 
reception  if  administered  in  name  of  Trinity.  It  must 
be  completed,  however,  by  imposition  of  hands  of 
bishop.  Latter  view  finally  prevailed.  Cyprian  held 
that  Cath.  Ch.  was  custodian  of  all  grace,  hence  heret- 
ical baptism  could  have  no  validity  or  value ;  Stephen 
of  Rome  that  baptism  operated  of  itself  irrespective 
of  the  administrator  or  subject  through  the  baptismal 


42  A  GUIDE  TO  THE  STUDY 

formula,  hence  all  baptisms  in  name  of  Trinity  valid 
and  regenerating. 

(2)  Eucharist.  (K.  i.  36:  1-6;  A.  i.  92;  S.  i.  102.) 
Eucharist,  also  called  sacrament,  was  part  of  weekly 
worship,  but  is  best  treated  separately,  a.  Time.  Every 
Lord's  day  or  Sunday,  and  toward  end  of  period  at 
other  times,  b.  Administrator.  Bishop  or  presbyter; 
deacons  distributed  elements  and  carried  some  to  the 
sick  and  those  in  prison,  c.  Elements.  Bread,  and 
wine  mingled  with  water.  They  were  taken  from  the 
offerings  brought  by  the  people,  and  were  consecrated 
by  prayer,  d.  Participants.  The  baptized,  sometimes 
children  as  well  as  adults.  Toward  end  of  period  none 
but  participants  were  allowed  to  be  present,  others 
being  dismissed  before  the  supper  (Missa.).  e.  Sig- 
nificance. It  is  called  body  and  blood  of  Christ,  with- 
out specifying  how.  It  is  implied  and  expressly  said 
to  be  an  offering  or  sacrifice  in  Iren.  Her.  IV  19:5; 
18:4;  Cyprian,  eps.  6^.  Regarded  as  a  high  and  holy 
mystery,  important  for  the  support  of  the  spiritual  life, 
f.  Celebrated  in  time  of  Justin  (i  Apol.  66)  with 
songs,  reading  Scripture,  homily,  kiss  of  peace,  conse- 
cration, distribution  by  deacons,  the  participants  stand- 
ing; toward  end  of  period  much  more  elaborate  cere- 
monies; early  in  this  period  the  agape  (love  feast)  was 
separated  from  the  supper,  then  gradually  fell  into 
disfavor,  and  in  next  period  was  formally  prohibited. 

(Ill)     Worship 

K.  i.  36-38;  H.  i.  348-57;  A.  i.  93;  S.  i.  98-101. 
I.  Time,    (i)  Weekly  Worship.    Worship  on  Sab- 
bath continued  into  this  period,  but  ceased  before  its 


OF  CHURCH  HISTORY  43 

close,  being  gradually  superseded  by  first  day  (heathen 
Sunday),  because  of  resurrection  called  Lord's  day. 
It  was  often  before  day  and  after  nightfall  and,  on 
account  of  persecution,  secret.  Day  was  joyous  (no 
fasting,  prayer  standing),  in  contrast  with  Jewish  Sab- 
bath, which  was  gloomy.  Apparently  work  continued 
on  this  day  in  early  times.  Tertullian  is  the  first  to 
oppose  iti  In  some  places  worship  may  have  been  on 
other  days  also.  (2)  Annual  Seasons.  Passover 
(Easter)  (controversies  over  reckoning,  160  and  196), 
Pentecost  (Whitsunday),  Epiphany  from  360  on, 
dying  day  of  martyrs.  (3)  Fasts.  Wed.  and  Fri.  till 
3  :oo  P.  M.,  forty  hours  before  passover,  and  at  other 
times  appointed  by  bishop. 

2.  Place.  In  private  houses,  rented  halls,  and  after 
200  (Clem.  Al.  and  Tert.)  special  buildings  called 
church.  Lord's  house,  house  of  God,  house  of  prayer. 
The  building  was  a  parallelogram,  divided  into  vesti- 
bule, nave  for  the  people  and  raised  platform  for  clergy 
and  altar — a  modified  basilica.  Without  pictures, 
images,  stained  glass  or  lights  in  day  time. 

3.  Contents.  Divided  into  two  parts.  ( i )  When 
all  are  present,  a.  Singing  of  psalms  and  hymns  to 
music  adopted  probably  from  both  Jewish  and  heathen 
sources,  b.  Reading  Scripture  (O.  and  N.  Ts.),  prob- 
ably before  end  of  period  divided  into  fixed  lessons,  c. 
Prayers,  with  people  standing,  d.  Preaching  by  bishop, 
at  first  very  simple,  but  growing  more  elaborate  as 
period  advances.  (2)  When  only  believers  were  pres- 
ent. Celebration  of  the  Lord's  Supper  in  the  unity  of 
Christian  fellowship  (see  preceding  section). 


44  A  GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 

(IV)     Christian  Life  and  Discipline 
I.     Christian  Life 

H.  i.  358-95;  S.  i.  86-96;  A.  i.  94f;  K,  i.  38,  39. 

Christian  Morals,  in  general  greatly  better  than 
those  of  the  heathen,  which  were  low  and  decadent. 
And  yet  Christian  morals  were  probably  lower  on  the 
average  than  in  first  period. 

(i)  Family  life.  Opposition  to  marital  unfaithful- 
ness, abortion,  exposure  of  children,  degradation  and 
abuse  of  women,  divorce  except  for  adultery.  Mar- 
riage was  given  religious  sanction  before  200,  while 
many  of  the  old  marriage  customs  continued;  strong 
aversion  to  second  marriages  (forbidden  to  clergy) ; 
high  estimate  of  celibacy  as  the  holier  state,  especially 
for  the  clergy  who  before  end  of  period  were  pro- 
hibited from  marrying  a  widow,  a  divorced  woman,  a 
slave,  from  marrying  a  second  time  or  even  at  all  after 
ordination.  The  dead  were  buried  (not  cremated)  in 
consecrated  cemeteries  (sleeping  places)  without  ex- 
travagant lamentations,  while  the  tomb  was  marked  by 
inscriptions  and  symbols  expressive  of  hope  and  vic- 
tory (anchor,  palm,  harp,  crown).  The  Catacombs  of 
Rome  and  other  places  used  for  burying ;  extensive  and 
ornamented  (fish,  ship,  dove,  historic  scenes).  Before 
end  of  period  there  were  funeral  sermons  and  prayers 
for  the  dead — at  first  prayers  of  thanksgiving,  but 
later  intercessions.  Slavery  was  ameliorated  but  not 
abrogated.  Many  slaves  became  Christians,  and  some 
of  them  suffered  martyrdom  heroically. 

(2)  Social  Life,  As  far  as  possible.  Christians  lived 
like  their  neighbors,  but  largely  withdrew  from  cruel, 


OF  CHURCH   HISTORY  45 

corrupting  and  idolatrous  amusements  (theatres,  cir- 
cus, gladiatorial  combats,  religious  festivals,  etc. ) ; 
from  trades  and  callings  that  involved  the  support  and 
recognition  of  idolatry  (idol  making,  playing  and  in- 
struction of  players,  etc.)-  This  caused  them  to  be 
stigmatized  as  haters  of  mankind. 

(3)  Civil  and  Army  Life.  Christians  rather  shunned 
public  life  because  it  exposed  them  to  danger  and 
necessitated  contact  with  heathen  rites  and  morals,  and 
because  they  opposed  war  and  capital  punishment. 
Still,  some  were  found  in  the  army  and  in  civil  office. 

(4)  Religions  Life.  There  was  Sunday  worship, 
fasts  on  Wednesday  and  Friday  until  3  p.  m.,  daily 
prayers,  frequently  at  night,  constant  use  of  the  sign  of 
the  cross;  extensive  charities  in  aid  of  widows  and 
orphans,  the  poor,  the  imprisoned,  etc.  Christian 
symbols  replaced  heathen  ones  in  the  adornment  of 
the  home,  the  ring,  the  amulet,  etc.  'Asceticism  was 
highly  regarded  by  200.  Both  men  and  women,  while 
still  living  in  the  midst  of  society,  renounced  property 
and  marriage,  avoided  wine  and  flesh,  devoted  them- 
selves to  prayer  and  other  religious  exercises  and  strove 
for  perfection.  Their  vow  was  not  irrevocable,  but 
they  already  formed  the  spiritual  aristocracy,  the  pride 
of  the  church  (Tert.).  About  285  Anthony  of  Thebes 
withdrew  from  society  and  became  a  hermit ;  followed 
by  great  numbers  of  others ;  about  322  Pachomius  drew 
up  a  rule  and  established  first  monastery,  or  group 
of  ascetics,  in  Egypt. 

(5)  Schools  and  Culture.  Apparently  there  were 
no  Christian  schools  for  general  culture,  only  heathen 
schools.    Some  of  the  Christians  were  highly  educated 


46  A  GUIDE  TO  THE  STUDY 

while  others  disdained  and  despised  culture;  catechetical 
schools  for  religious  training. 

2.    Discipline 

H.  i.  341-7;  K.  i.  39:2;  S.  i.  114;  A.  i.  90. 

( 1 )  Persons  were  prepared  for  baptism  by  a  period 
of  instruction,  usually  two  years,  but  it  might 
be  longer  or  shorter.  These  persons,  called  catechu- 
mens, were  divided  into  three  classes:  (a)  Hearers, 
permitted  to  hear  only  Scripture  lesson  and  sermon; 
(b)  Kneelers,  permitted  to  take  part  in  some  of  the 
prayers,  but  kneeling  while  congregation  stood;  (c) 
Co-standers,  who  took  part  in  prayers  standing,  up  to 
time  of  eucharistic  service. 

(2)  All  sins  committed  prior  to  baptism  were 
thought  to  be  washed  away  in  that  ordinance. 

(3)  Sins  committed  after  baptism  were  divided, 
from  Tertullian  on,  into  venial  and  mortal  sins:  (a) 
Venial  sins  were  forgiven  on  repentance  by  the  imposi- 
tion of  the  hands  of  the  clergy,  (b)  Mortal  sins 
(murder,  apostasy,  adultery,  heresy,  schism,  etc.)  led 
to  excommunication  and  loss  of  eternal  life.  Many 
held  that  persons  excommunicated  could  never  be  re- 
stored to  church  fellowship ;  others  allowed  one  restora- 
tion; others  still  laxer.  Long  penance  required  by  all 
parties,  from  one  to  fifteen  or  twenty  years.  At  first 
details  of  discipline  were  left  to  local  churches,  but 
before  end  of  period  it  was  regulated,  in  part  at  least, 
by  synods  (Ancyra,  314).  Four  degrees  of  punish- 
ment: (a)  Weepers,  not  permitted  to  enter  the  church, 
(b)  hearers,  (c)  kneelers,  (d)  co-standers;  the  last 
three  corresponding  to  grades  of  catechumens.     On 


OF  CHURCH  HISTORY  47 

conclusion  of  period  of  penitence  the  imposition  of 
hands  and  kiss  of  peace  readmitted  to  communion  and 
the  blessings  of  grace.  This  was  only  the  church's 
forgiveness,  and  did  not  insure  divine  forgiveness.  The 
penitence  was  only  an  assurance  of  repentance,  but 
Tert.  calls  it  "satisfaction,"  and  before  long  it  began 
to  be  regarded  as  the  means  of  regaining  favor  with 
God.  All  penitent  sinners  received  the  communion 
when  dying  (viaticum)  even  if  they  had  not  been 
restored  to  fellowship.  Martyrdom,  the  "baptism  of 
blood,"  was  supposed  to  wash  away  all  sins.  Persons 
who  had  committed  mortal  sins  were  not  admitted  to 
the  clergy  even  after  penitence. 

(V)     Development  of  Doctrine 

A.  i.  76-80;  H.  i.  259-98;  K.  i.  33;  S.  i.  74-85. 

I.  Making  THE  Christian  Bible.  Christians  soon 
began  to  write  as  occasion  demanded  (Paul,  some  of 
the  twelve,  others).  These  scattered  writings  circu- 
lated more  or  less  freely,  having  an  authority  equal  to 
that  of  the  author  and  their  intrinsic  worth  for  the 
church  at  large.  As  the  generation  that  knew  Jesus 
passed  away,  these  books  became  the  sole  depositories 
of  information  about  Him,  and  the  earliest  and  most 
authoritative  interpretation  of  Him.  So  they  began 
to  be  quoted  for  content  of  fact  and  doctrine.  As 
time  passed,  the  supreme  importance  of  some  of  them 
was  more  and  more  recognized,  and  they  began  to 
be  put  together  here  and  there,  and  to  be  called  a  canon 
(rule)  by  which  to  test  doctrine.  Controversy  with  the 
Gnostics  doubtless  hastened  this  process.  At  any  rate, 
by  160  (Muratorian  Canon)  the  widely  scattered  Chris- 


48  A  GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 

tians,  without  conciliary  action  or  much  discussion, 
had  reached  substantial  agreement  as  to  what  books 
were  to  be  treated  as  normative  or  canonical.  Absolute 
unanimity  has  never  been  reached,  and  at  the  close  of 
the  period  seven  of  the  books  now  in  our  New  Testa- 
ment were  still  in  doubt  in  the  West,  while  certain 
sections  of  the  East  rejected  this  or  that  book  now 
accepted  by  us.  Some  books  not  used  by  us  were  read 
in  the  churches.  None  of  the  early  ecumenical  councils 
passed  upon  the  subject.  The  books  finally  included 
were  selected  by  the  Christians  of  the  world  under  the 
practical  test  of  daily  use  (and,  we  believe,  by  divine 
guidance).  The  present  canon  was  first  defined  by  the 
Council  of  Hippo,  393,  which  simply  confirmed  current 
usage.  This  collection  came  to  be  called  the  New 
Covenant  (Testament),  and  was  put  alongside  the  Jew- 
ish Bible,  which  was  then  called  the  Old  Covenant 
(Testament),  and  later  the  two  together  were  called  the 
Bible  (book). 

2.  The  First  Creed  (Apostles')  was  the  product 
of  natural  forces,  not  the  decree  of  a  council.  It  prob- 
ably grew  up  around  the  baptismal  formula.  Its  sub- 
stance is  found  in  Ire.  and  in  Tert.,  who  calls  it  a  "rule 
of  faith."  Its  words  were  not  then  fixed,  but  it  had 
most  of  the  ideas  of  the  Apostles'  Creed  into  which  it 
later  developed  (C.  C.  ii.  11-41).  Its  exact  phraseology 
was  not  fixed  till  5th  or  6th  century. 

3.  Rise  and  Development  of  Theology.  The 
history  of  theology  is  the  story  of  faith  seeking  knowl- 
edge. It  is  the  formulation  and  development  of  Chris- 
tian truth  in  contact  with — usually  in  more  or  less 
conflict  with — the  general  thought  of  the  time;  it  is  a 


OF  CHURCH   HISTORY  49 

deposit  'of  controversy.  During  this  period  it  was  in  a 
formative  state.  There  was  general  agreement,  but  no 
authoritative  doctrine  (dogma),  (i)  God.  There  was 
one,  true,  Hving  and  righteous  God,  Creator  and 
Preserver  of  all  things  visible  and  invisible  (against 
Gnostics).  (2)  Christ  and  the  Trinity.  There  was 
general  agreement  that  Christ  was  God  (Pliny,  Igna.) 
and  man.  The  problem  on  the  divine  side  was  to 
formulate  a  statement  which  preserved  (a)  the  unity 
of  God,  (b)  the  deity  of  Christ,  (c)  the  independent 
personality  of  Christ.  All  Christians  held  to  (a),  but 
some  were  uncertain  as  to  (b)  or  (c)  ;  no  satisfactory 
statement  was  reached  in  this  period.  Three  general 
types  of  Christology  were  developed:  (a)  Dynamic 
M onarchianism :  Christ  was  not  truly  God,  but  was 
endowed  and  after  death  exalted  to  divinity;  substan- 
tially this  view  was  held  by  Alogi  in  Asia  Minor,  170; 
Theodotians  (Theodotus  the  tanner  and  Theodotus  the 
banker)  at  Rome,  192  on;  Artemonites,  200  on;  Paul 
of  Samosata  at  Antioch,  260  on;  (b)  Modal  Monarch- 
ianism  (patripassians)  :  Christ  and  God  are  identical, 
the  Son  only  a  manifestation  of  the  Father;  held  by 
Praxeas  of  Asia  Minor  at  Rome,  180  on;  Noetus  of 
Smyrna  at  Rome,  200  on ;  Zephyrinus  and  Callistus  I, 
bishops  of  Rome,  200  on;  Sabellius  at  Rome  and  in 
Egypt,  c.  210  on;  Beryll  of  Bostra,  244;  (c)  Subordi- 
nation or  Logos  Christology.  The  Logos  had  a  be- 
ginning as  a  separate  personal  being,  is  of  the  Father 
and  subordinate  to  Him;  held  by  many,  but  specially 
by  Justin,  Tertullian,  Hypolitus,  and  others;  Origen 
originated  idea  of  eternal  generation. 

The  relation  between  the  divine  and  human  in  Christ 


50  A  GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 

was  not  much  discussed  as  yet.  (3)  Holy  Spirit. 
Not  much  discussed.  (4)  Man.  Emphasis  was  laid 
upon  the  freedom  of  the  will,  but  anthropology  and 
soteriology  remained  undeveloped;  no  consistent  doc- 
trine of  redemption  or  justification  by  faith.  There  is 
a  distinct  legalistic  tendency,  a  failure  to  grasp  the 
evangel  of  Paul.  In  general,  Christ's  death  was  not 
emphasized;  rather  His  revelation  of  life  and  im- 
mortality. In  some  places  Chiliasm  highly  developed. 
Belief  in  good  angels  and  in  demons  who  were  con- 
stantly exorcised  by  name  of  Christ. 

(VI)     Sects  and  Schisms 
I.     Heresies 

(i)  Jewish.  H.  i.  207-13;  K.  i.  25;  28;  A.  i.  72b; 
S.  i.  67-9;  N.  i.  173-80.  Ebionites,  Nazarenes  and 
others;  of  Jewish  origin  with  various  shades  of 
opinion,  but  general  agreement  in  trying  to  combine 
Judaism  and  Christianity.  Mosaic  law  was  thought 
to  be  binding  on  Jews  (or  all)  ;  Jesus  was  only  a  man, 
but  was  specially  endowed  by  the  Spirit,  and  pious 
above  all  men.  He  was  the  Messiah,  a  teacher  or 
prophet  who  worked  miracles  and  supplemented  the 
Law  by  His  commands.    General  opposition  to  Paul. 

(2)  Gnosticism.  N.  i.  180-194;  S.  i.  70-2;  A.  i. 
71  f;  K.  i.  26f;  H.  i.  214-32.  Most  dangerous  of  all 
early  heresies,  was  an  attempt  to  combine  pagan  phi- 
losophy with  the  new  Christian  thought.  It  rose  in  the 
East  and  flourished  in  Asia  Minor,  Egypt,  Syria  and 
Rome. 

Doctrines,  a.  God.  One  absolute  Spirit,  with  a 
descending  series  of  .^ons  or  Emanations,  source  of 


OF   CHURCH   HISTORY  51 

all  good  (Pleroma).  h.  Matter.  The  eternal  kenoma, 
negation  of  being,  abode  of  evil.  c.  Visible  Universe, 
a  mixture  of  spirit  and  matter,  good  and  evil,  brought 
into  shape  by  the  demiurge,  usually  identified  v^ith 
Jehovah,  God  of  the  Jews,  w^ho  v^orked  either  in  oppo- 
sition to  or  in  ignorance  of  the  true  God.  d.  Man 
was  mixture  of  good  and  evil.  Three  classes:  (a) 
hylic,  wholly  material  and  incapable  of  salvation;  (b) 
psychic,  endowed  with  soul  and  capable  of  partial  salva- 
tion; (c)  pneumatic  (Gnostics),  endowed  with  spirit 
and  capable  of  complete  salvation,  e.  Redemption  was 
effected  through  knowledge,  revealed  by  Christ,  one  of 
the  highest  iEons  who  came  on  the  man  Jesus  at  his 
baptism  and  left  before  crucifixion.  /.  All  spirit  would 
finally  be  released  from  matter  and  ascend  with  all  the 
redeemed  into  the  pleroma,  where  it  would  abide  for- 
ever. From  these  fundamental  ideas  flowed  several 
other  doctrines  :  (a)  Rejection  of  O.  T.  and  the  Jewish 
elements  of  the  New;  (b)  denial  of  the  reality  of 
Christ's  body,  sufferings,  resurrection,  etc.;  (c)  an 
ascetic  or  a  libertine  life.  Gnosticism  was  supported 
by  a  brief  canon,  a  pretended  secret  tradition  and  an 
extensive  spurious  literature  ascribed  to  apostles.  The 
most  important  Gnostics  were  Saturninus  in  Syria,  c. 
100;  Basilides  in  Egypt,  about  130;  Valentinus  in 
Rome,  c.  135 ;  Marcion  in  Rome,  c.  138. 

Marcion  organized  his  followers  into  independent 
churches,  while  other  types  remained  in  the  churches. 
Marcion  believed  in  two  Gods  and  two  Christs ;  exag- 
gerated Paul's  doctrines  of  justification  and  redemption. 
Gnosticism,  in  one  form  or  another,  extended  over 
nearly  the  whole  Christian  world,  and  continued  till 


52  A  GUIDE   TO  THE   STUDY 

4th  century.  Gnostics  regarded  themselves  as  the  elite 
among  Christians;  being  cultured  they  rather  dis- 
dained or  despised  the  ordinary  Christians. 

2.     Schisms 

(l)     MONTANISM 

N.  i.  202-6;  H.  i.  233-40;  K.  Sec.  40;  A.  i.  74;  S.  i.  97. 

( I )  Montanism  was  the  other  extreme  from 
Gnosticism — a  reformation,  a  rigoristic  and  ascetic 
Puritanism.  (a)  History.  It  was  founded  by 
Montanus  (Priscilla  and  Maximilla)  in  Phrygia, 
c.  150,  spread  over  Asia  Minor,  N.  Africa  (Tertullian 
after  201 )  and  the  East,  made  a  profound  impression, 
almost  won  the  recognition  of  Rome,  but  was  finally 
condemned  as  heresy  and  disappeared  in  6th  century, 
(b)  Doctrines  and  Aims.  Agreeing  with  the  Cath. 
Ch.  in  doctrine  it  sought  to  reform  the  church  and 
restore  primitive  Christianity;  it  claimed  to  be  the 
continuation  of  prophecy  and  miraculous  gifts  by  the 
dispensation  of  the  Paraclete  through  Montanus — a 
later  and  higher  revelation ;  opposed  the  hierarchy  and 
asserted  the  universal  priesthood  of  believers;  enforced 
rigid  discipline,  rejected  second  marriages,  demanded 
frequent  and  rigid  fasts,  exalted  virginity,  distinction 
of  venial  from  mortal  sins;  the  latter  could  not  be  for- 
given by  the  church;  expectation  of  the  end  of  the 
world. 

(2)     Schisms  Over  Treatment  of  Lapsed 

No  other  matter  of  discipline  gave  the  ancient  church 
so  much  trouble  as  the  proper  treatment  of  those  who 


OF  CHURCH  HISTORY  53 

had  in  one  way  or  another  betrayed  their  Christian 
faith  in  persecution.  Some  had  renounced  Christianity 
and  sacrificed  again  to  heathen  gods,  some  had  bribed 
officials,  some  had  fled,  some  had  deHvered  up  the 
Scriptures.  Each  of  these  offenses  was  more  or  less 
aggravated  according  to  circumstances.  The  great 
numbers  of  the  lapsed  in  the  Decian  and  Diocletian 
persecutions,  their  wide  distribution,  and  the  fanati- 
cism of  those  who  bravely  suffered,  created  an  enormous 
difficulty.  Two  general  opinions  as  to  proper  treat- 
ment of  the  lapsed :  A  lenient  view,  held  by  majority 
of  Christians,  which  would,  after  a  long  period  of 
penitence  or  at  death  readmit  the  lapsed  to  the  church ; 
a  strict  view  which  would  exclude  them  permanently 
from  the  church,  leaving  them  to  the  mercy  of  God. 
Various  shades  of  opinion  between  the  two  extremes. 
This  difference  of  opinion  caused  five  serious  schisms. 

a.     That  of  Felicissimus  at  Carthage 
H.  i.  241-4;  K.  i.  41:  2;  S.  i.  115:  I 

Cyprian,  converted  247,  elected  bishop  248  in  hasty 
and  irregular  way,  was  opposed  by  five  presbyters, 
among  them  Novatus  who  assumed  episcopal  functions 
and  ordained  Felicissimus  deacon.  Cyprian  was  at 
first  strict  in  dealing  with  lapsed  in  Decian  persecution 
but  himself  went  into  hiding  for  fourteen  months. 
These  facts  together  with  Cyprian's  exalted  episcopal 
assumptions  strengthened  the  party  which  espoused  the 
cause  of  the  lapsed  and  for  a  time  threatened  to  gain 
control  of  Church  of  Carthage;  but  in  251  the  synod 
of  N.  African  bishops  at  Carthage  sustained  C.  and 
excommunicated  F.  and  followers;  the  party  elected 


54  A  GUIDE  TO  THE  STUDY 

Fortunatus  bishop  but  gradually  disappeared.  Cyprian 
grew  laxer  as  time  passed  and  thus  later  caused  serious 
dissatisfaction  among   strict   party. 

b.    Novatianisni  (at  Rome  in  251) 
N.  i.  2o6f;  H.  i.  245!;   S.  i,   115:2;   K.  i.  41:3;  A.  i.  91a. 

Novatian,  a  presbyter  of  Rome,  having  received  only 
clinic  baptism  by  pouring,  opposed  election  of  Cornelius 
as  Bishop  of  Rome,  was  himself  elected  opposing 
bishop  as  representative  of  strict  party.  In  this  pob.tion 
he  was  supported  by  Novatus  who  had  come  over 
from  Carthage;  strong  party  developed.  In  doctuine 
the  Novatians  agreed  with  the  church,  but  maintained 
that  the  lapsed  should  not  be  restored  to  church  fellows- 
ship,  and  rebaptized  all  who  came  to  them,  laying 
emphasis  on  baptismal  remission  and  a  proper  adminis- 
trator. He  and  his  followers  were  excommunicated, 
but  the  movement  spread  rapidly  over  much  of  the 
empire,  dividing  churches  and  founding  new  ones, 
which  existed  till  6th  century.  They  called  themselves 
Cathari  (Puritans),  absorbing  remnants  of  Montanists. 

c.    Meletian  Schism 
H.  i.  248f;  K.  42:4;  A,  91^;  S.  115:3. 

Arose  in  Egypt  ca.  305.  Meletius  B.  of  Lycopolis 
opposed  restoration  of  lapsed  before  cessation  of  perse- 
cution and  apparently  exercised  metropolitan  functions ; 
deposed  by  Peter  of  Alexandria;  schism  spread  over 
all  Egypt  and  continued  for  a  century. 

d.  Donatism,  the  most  extensive  and  serious  of  these 
schisms  (N.  i.  208-10;  H.  i.  ,249-58;  K.  63:  i; 
A.  i.  109;  S.  i.  69-71),  arose  at  Carthage  during  the 


OF  CHURCH  HISTORY  55 

Diocletian  persecution.  A  fanatical  party  courted 
martyrdom  and  venerated  martyrs'  bones.  The  bishop 
Mensurius  and  Csecilian  opposed,  gave  up  heretical 
writings  instead  of  Scriptures  and  were  blamed  as 
traditors.  Mensurius  d.  311;  Csecilian  hastily  elected 
successor  was  consecrated  by  Felix  of  Aptunga,  a 
traditor.  Opponents  elected  Majorinus;  he  d.  313  and 
Donatus  was  elected.  They  appealed  to  Constantine. 
Condemned  by  ecclesiastical  commission  at  Rome  313, 
SynL»d  at  Aries  314,  Constantine  personally  316;  spread 
over  all  N.  Africa,  causing  political  rebellion.  Con- 
stantine tried  to  suppress  them  316,  but  granted  free- 
dom 321 ;  persecution  continued  with  interruptions 
throughout  4th  century.  Augustine  opposed  them  and 
counseled  their  suppression.  Accordingly,  in  415  the 
government  undertook  more  vigorous  measures.  Still 
they  maintained  their  existence,  even  through  the  Van- 
dal invasion,  and  were  swept  out  of  existence  with  the 
rest  of  Christianity  in  N.  Africa  by  the  Mohammedan 
invasion  in  7th  century. 

They  agreed  with  the  Church  in  organization,  doc- 
trine, infant  baptism,  baptismal  regeneration,  etc. ;  but 
rebaptized  Catholics,  held  that  the  validity  of  an  ordi- 
nance depended  on  the  character  of  the  administrator, 
opposed  the  interference  of  the  government  in  church 
affairs  (after  futile  efforts  to  influence  the  govern- 
ment in  their  own  behalf),  enforced  strict  discipline, 
maintained  an  effort  at  a  pure  church. 

3.    Manich^ism 

N.  194-7;  H.  i.  225-7;  K.  29;  A.  i.  73;  S.  i.  73- 
Manichseism    more    a    rival    religion    closely    akin 


56  A  GUIDE  TO  THE  STUDY 

to  Gnosticism  than  a  sect  of  Christianity;  founded 
ca.  238  in  Persia  by  Mani  d.  2'jy ;  he  grafted  Buddhist 
and  Christian  elements  upon  the  old  Zoroastrian  reli- 
gion, and  proclaimed  the  mixture  as  the  only  genuine 
Christianity.  He  attained  great  favor  and  propagated 
his  views  widely  in  Persia;  his  followers  spread  into 
Empire,  were  persecuted  by  Diocletian  (287)  and  in 
4th  and  5th  centuries  deeply  affected  Italy  and  N. 
Africa  (Augustine).  It  disappeared  as  an  organiza- 
tion in  6th  century,  though  its  influence  continued  into 
Middle  Ages  in  doctrines  of  other  sects. 

Its  principal  doctrines  were  an  absolute  dualism, 
rejection  of  O.  T.,  and  of  Jewish  elements  in  New; 
docetic  Christology.  The  world  is  a  mixture  of  light 
and  darkness,  and  Christ's  work  is  to  redeem  the  light. 
The  Manichseans  were  divided  into  "hearers"  and  "per- 
fect," the  latter  practicing  rigid  asceticism,  rejecting 
marriage,  etc.  They  were  organized  into  independent 
churches,  kept  Sunday,  had  simple  worship,  celebrated 
baptism  with  oil  and  the  supper  with  bread  only. 

(VII)     Christian  Literature 

N.  i.  211-90 ;  S.  ii.  p62i-866 ;  H.  i.  191-206 ;  K.  30-32 ;  A.  i.  P293-298. 

Christian  literature  was  still  chiefly  in  Greek,  but 
in  N.  Africa  and  after  250  in  Rome  Latin  was  the 
literary  language  of  Christianity. 

From  the  region  of  Edessa  emanated  a  translation 
of  Scripture  into  Syriac  along  with  some  other  litera- 
ture of  minor  importance ;  in  Egypt  appeared  two  ver- 
sions in  Coptic  but  no  other  literature  in  this  tongue. 

In  addition  to  defenses  of  Christianity  against  hea- 
thenism   (see   apologists),   there   appeared   able   and 


OF  CHURCH  HISTORY  57 

extensive  polemics  against  Gnosticism  and  other  per- 
versions of  Christianity,  against  Montanists,  Nova- 
tianists  and  other  schismatics ;  expositions  of  Scripture, 
often  fanciful  and  crude;  tracts  for  edification  and  the 
enforcement  of  Christian  virtues;  explanations  and 
defense  of  prevailing  religious  customs;  toward  end 
of  period  tracts  on  doctrines  and  the  beginnings  of  sys- 
tematic theology  and  of  history;  wholly  by  Gentile 
Christians.  Christians  adopted  the  prevalent  literary 
forms,  and  their  work  compares  favorably  in  ability 
and  finish  with  the  literature  of  the  heathen  of  that 
time.  The  most  important  authors  of  this  period  in 
Greek  were  Clement  of  Rome,  c.  96;  Barnabas,  c.  120; 
Ignatius,  c.  115;  Hermas,  c.  140;  Didache,  c.  120; 
Aristides,  c.  140;  Justin  Martyr,  f  c.  165  ;  Tatian,  c.  172 ; 
Athenogoras,  c.  177;  Irenseus,  fc.  202;  Clement  of 
Alexandria,  f c.  220 ;  Hippolytus,  f c.  235 ;  Origen, 
f  c.  254.  The  only  authors  of  note  who  used  the  Latin 
were  Tertullian,  f c.  220 ;  Cyprian,  f^sS,  and  Novatian, 
c.  251. 

There  was  an  extensive  apocryphal  and  psudepi- 
graphical  literature,  partly  heretical,  partly  orthodox. 
It  is  in  form  of  heathen  prophecies,  O.  T.,  N.  T.  and 
later  Christian  writings;  gospels,  acts  and  letters  of 
apostles,  apocalypses ;  acts  of  martyrs.  For  most  part 
of  little  value. 


58  A  GUIDE  TO   THE   STUDY 


SECOND  PERIOD,  323  TO  c.  600 

Christianity  in  the  Christian  Roman  Empire.  The 
Imperial  Church  gradually  dissolving  with  the  disso- 
lution of  the  Empire. 

I.     External  History 

I.  Secular  History.  A  period  of  terrible  storm 
and  stress  in  western  part  of  empire  in  which  N.  Africa 
and  all  European  provinces  west  of  Italy  are  lost  to 
the  invading  German  tribes.  Constantine  (sole  em- 
peror S2^-^y)  reorganizes  government,  regulates  taxes, 
separates  military  from  civil  government,  abolishes 
Pretorian  guard,  moves  capital  from  Rome  to  Byzan- 
tium (Nova  Roma  or  Constantinople,  330)  ;  before 
death  divides  empire  among  his  three  sons  as  emperors ; 
Constantine  II  (337-40)  Britain,  Spain  and  Gaul; 
Constans  (337-50)  Illyricum,  Italy,  Africa,  and  after 
death  of  Constantine  II  (340),  over  Gaul,  Spain  and 
Britain  also;  Constantius  (337-61),  over  Orient,  and 
after  death  of  Constans  (350)  over  the  reunited  em- 
pire. Julian  (361-3),  Jovian  (363f) ;  Valentinian  I 
(364-75)  divides  empire  again  (364-394).  It  was 
united  for  one  year  by  Theodosius  (394-5)  and  then 
divided  (Ravenna  W.  capital)  till  final  fall  of  W. 
emperor  476. 

Beginning  about  375  the  German  or  Teutonic  tribes 
rapidly  rent  the  western  provinces  from  the  empire 
and  set  up  independent  governments,  thus  laying  the 


OF  CHURCH   HISTORY  59 

foundations  of  the  modern  European  states.  They 
were  still  barbarous,  having  neither  literature  nor  writ- 
ten language,  cities  or  settled  life;  gradually  developing 
from  tribal  into  kingly  governments;  imperfect  agri- 
culture; largely  engaged  in  hunting  and  war;  either 
heathen  or  Arian  in  religion;  they  everywhere  over- 
threw the  Roman  government  and  other  institutions; 
settled  among  the  conquered  peoples,  accepted  their 
religion  and  appropriated  their  culture. 

They  broke  over  Rhine  and  Danube  about  the  same 
time.  In  375  W.  Goths  (Visigoths),  pressed  by  Huns 
and  E.  Goths,  crossed  lower  Danube  with  permission 
of  Emperor  Valens ;  provoked  into  rebellion  by  Roman 
officers  they  defeated  great  army  and  killed  Valens 
near  Adrianople  378,  and  were  permitted  by  Theo- 
dosius  to  settle;  rebelled  (395)  and  wasted  Macedonia, 
Thrace,  Illyria  and  Greece;  moving  westward  they 
enter  Italy  (401),  sack  Rome  (410);  then  become 
allies  of  Romans,  move  into  S.  Gaul  and  Spain  to  fight 
other  Germans  and  found  W.  Gothic  Empire  in  Spain, 
with  capital  at  Toledo  (41 5-71 1). 

Vandals,  Suevi  and  Alani  crossed  Rhine  (406), 
fought  their  way  across  Gaul  into  Spain  (409),  and 
settled  (Vandals  in  South,  Alani  in  Southwest,  Suevi 
in  Northwest).  Attacked  by  W.  Goths  who  followed 
them.  Vandals  cross  to  N.  Africa  (429),  overthrow 
Roman  government  there,  and  establish  Vandal  king- 
dom with  Carthage  as  capital  (429-534).  They  waste 
the  country;  being  Arians  they  persecute  orthodox 
Christians ;  found  a  navy,  waste  the  coasts  and  islands 
of  the  Mediterranean  and  sack  Rome  (455),  (Vandal- 
ism). 


6o  A  GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 

Burgundians  at  first  settled  on  middle,  but  c.  443 
on  upper  Rhine.  Alemanni,  c.  443,  settled  Alsace 
and  N.  Switzerland. 

Angles,  Saxons  and  Jutes  began  invasion  of  Britain 
449,  gradually  over-ran  all  except  Wales  and  Cornwall, 
expelling  the  Britons,  destroying  all  civilization  and 
establishing  heathenism  again.  Formed  seven  king- 
doms (heptarchy). 

The  Huns  (Mongolians)  appear  in  E.  Europe  375, 
spread  over  country  north  of  Danube  and  under  Attila 
(''Scourge  of  God")  waste  much  of  W.  Europe;  de- 
feated at  Chalons  (451)  by  Romans  and  allied  Ger- 
mans; they  wasted  N.  Italy  452;  Attila  d.  453,  his 
kingdom  fell  to  pieces.  They  never  established 
permanent  settlements  and  soon  disappeared. 

Saltan  Franks,  c.  406,  cross  lower  Rhine  and  spread 
over  N.  Gaul;  their  king,  Clovis  (481-511),  defeats 
Syagrius,  last  Roman  governor  in  Gaul,  at  Soissons 
486,  makes  himself  king  of  all  Franks,  thus  forming 
Frankish  Empire;  defeats  Alemanni  (496)  at  Stras- 
burg,  becomes  an  orthodox  Christian  and  extends  his 
power  over  most  of  Gaul,  founding  Merovingian 
dynasty. 

Odoacer,  supported  by  Heruli  and  other  Germans, 
compelled  W.  Emperor  Romulus  Augustulus  to  abdi- 
cate 476,  and  made  himself  ruler  of  Italy,  as  patricius 
of  E.  emperor  but  in  virtual  independence.  Hence- 
forth there  is  but  one  emperor  and  he  is  at  Constanti- 
nople. 

East  Goths  (Ostro-Goths)  follow  the  W.  Goths 
across  lower  Danube,  settle  in  Pannonia  and  ravage 
the  Balkans ;  by  agreement  with  E.  emperor,  their  king 


OF  CHURCH   HISTORY  6i 

Theodoric  the  Great  (474-526),  undertook  to  recover 
Italy  from  Odoacer  for  the  empire  (489)  ;  he  defeated, 
captured  and  executed  Odoacer  493,  and  then,  instead 
of  turning  over  Italy  to  the  emperor,  founded  E.  Gothic 
empire  in  Italy  with  capital  at  Verona;  a  great  and 
good  ruler,  establishing  justice,  preserving  the  old 
culture  and  restoring  order  out  of  chaos.  By  500 
all  W.  provinces  were  in  hands  of  Germans.  During 
this  period  of  terrible  destruction  in  West  the  East 
was  having  its  difficulties  but  a  series  of  able  emperors 
kept  their  territories  intact.  On  E.  border  and  in 
Armenia  there  were  occasional  wars ;  Balkan  peninsula 
was  devastated  by  Huns,  Ostrogoths  and  other  tribes, 
but  the  Danube  was  maintained  as  the  border.  The 
Ostrogoths  were  the  last  Germans  in  this  region.  The 
destroyers  of  this  region  are  henceforth  to  be  Slavs  and 
Bulgars. 

Justinian  (527-65)  feeling  safe  in  East  undertook 
to  recover  these  lost  western  provinces.  His  general 
Belesarius  reconquered  N.  Africa  for  the  empire  (533- 
4) ;  after  long  and  hard  fighting  E.  Goths  were  over- 
come and  the  remnants  expelled  from  Sicily  and  Italy 
(535-554),  which  was  then  governed  by  an  imperial 
exarch  at  Ravenna;  Spain  was  then  attacked  and  the 
S.  E.  portion  recovered  for  the  empire,  but  there  the 
recovery  stopped,  and  soon  all  the  central  portion  of 
Italy  was  lost  again  to  the  Lombards. 

The  Lombards,  who  since  c.  500  occupied  Pannonia, 
invaded  Italy  568,  made  Pavia  the  capital  of  a  Lom- 
bard kingdom,  and  gradually  overran  most  of  central 
Italy,  founding  duchies  of  Friaul,  Spoleto  and  Bene- 
ventum.     The  coasts  and  Venice,   Ravenna,   Naples, 


62  A   GUIDE   TO  THE   STUDY 

Calabria,  Sicily  and  Sardinia  remained  in  possession 
of  the  empire;  Rome  and  the  Patrimony  of  Peter  was 
ruled  by  the  pope,  under  suzerainty  of  emperor.  Italy 
not  again  united  till  1870. 

The  closing  years  of  seventh  century  were  disastrous 
to  the  empire.  Justinian's  wars,  vast  building  opera- 
tions and  extravagances  had  exhausted  the  financial 
resources  of  the  empire;  war  and  pestilence  had  almost 
depopulated  Italy,  the  Balkans  and  the  eastern  frontier ; 
crushing  taxation;  Persian  war  (572-92);  new  and 
terrible  barbarians  raided  the  Balkan  peninsula ;  Avars 
a  Tartar  tribe  (562  onward) ;  Slavs  (Slovenes,  Antae, 
Croats,  Servians,  etc.)  and  Bulgars  (570  onward), 
the  latter  appropriating  the  lands  as  a  new  home.  The 
empire  was  very  depressed  at  end  of  our  period. 

2.    External  History  of  Christianity 

N.  i.  305-19;  H.  i.  410-26;  K.  42:  A.  i.  96-106;   S.  ii.   1-7. 

At  beginning  of  period  perhaps  one-tenth  of  the 
population  of  the  Empire  was  Christian,  at  close  the 
whole  of  it.  One-tenth  was  won  in  300  years,  and 
remaining  nine-tenths  in  275  years. 

(i)  Decay  and  death  of  heathenism  and  establish- 
ment of  Christianity  within  the  Empire — both  natives 
and  German  immigrants  converted  by  end  of  period, 
except  in  England. 

Gradually  heathenism  dies  both  in  East  and  West 
and  Christianity,  itself  being  corrupted  by  degrees, 
succeeds  to  its  place  in  private  and  public  life.  It  is 
no  longer  persecuted  but  now  has  governmental  favor 
and  exercises  vast  and  ever  increasing  power.  Not  a 
Christian  foresaw  the  danger  of  governmental  favor. 


OF  CHURCH  HISTORY  63 

not  a  single  protest  except  by  Donatists,  and  by  them 
only  after  failure  to  win  favor  of  the  government  for 
themselves.  The  world  was  accustomed  to  union  of 
religion  and  the  state,  and  Christianity  accepted  it  as 
a  matter  of  course.  Each  party  protested  under  persecu- 
tion and  sought  to  win  favor  of  state,  but  no  party 
protested  against  the  principle  of  union.  Constantine 
did  not,  except  in  a  few  cases,  persecute  or  repress 
heathenism,  but  favored  Christianity  without  establish- 
ing it  as  state  religion.  He  preached,  promoted  Chris- 
tians in  office,  relieved  clergy  from  taxation,  military 
and  municipal  duties,  built  churches,  legalized  gifts 
to  churches,  made  Constantinople  a  Christian  city, 
Sunday  a  legal  holiday,  modified  some  cruel  laws,  gave 
his  sons  Christian  education;  considered  himself 
"bishop  in  externals,"  called  council  of  Nicea,  repressed 
Donatists,  favored  the  orthodox,  but  later  the  Arians. 
Constantine  II  and  Constans  favored  the  orthodox; 
Constantius  repressed  heathenism  (heathen  sacrifice 
made  capital  crime  356),  and  tried  ineffectually  to 
impose  Arianism  on  entire  Empire  (after  350). 

Julian,  educated  as  a  Christian,  secretly  returned  to 
heathenism  (351),  and  as  emperor  (361-3)  openly 
renounced  Christianity  and  sought  to  revive  heathenism 
— restored  and  reorganized  heathen  priesthood  and 
worship,  organized  pagan  charities  after  Christian 
models;  tolerated  all  parties  of  Christians  in  order 
to  introduce  confusion,  but  removed  them  from  mili- 
tary and  civil  office,  imposed  heavy  taxes,  forced  them 
to  restore  heathen  property  and  support  heathen  wor- 
ship; forbade  Christians  to  teach  in  state  schools  or 
even  study  the  classics;  wrote  against  Christianity; 


64  A   GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 

favored  Jews  and  sought  ineffectually  to  rebuild  the 
temple  at  Jerusalem. 

Jovian  reversed  this  policy,  restored  Christianity  to 
its  former  privileges  but  tolerated  heathenism;  Val- 
entinian  and  Valens  prohibited  bloody  heathen  sacri- 
fices and  divination,  branding  heathenism  as  paganism. 
Valens  was  Arian  and  persecuted  the  orthodox.  Gra- 
tian  renounced  the  title  of  Pontifex  Maximus,  con- 
fiscated heathen  temples,  abolished  privileges  of  heathen 
priests  and  vestal  virgins,  withdrew  state  support  from 
heathen  public  worship,  and  in  382  removed  the  altar 
and  statue  of  Victory  from  senate  house. 

Theodosius  further  repressed  heathenism  and  fully 
established  orthodox  Christianity  as  the  religion  of  the 
Empire;  many  temples  East  and  West  destroyed  by 
mobs.  In  East  Theodosius  II  ordered  (435)  all 
temples  to  be  destroyed  or  turned  into  churches ;  Jus- 
tinian I  prohibited  heathen  worship  on  pain  of  death, 
and  in  529  closed  the  school  of  Athens,  thus  bringing 
heathen  culture  to  an  end  within  the  Empire.  In  West 
the  German  invasion  largely  destroyed  heathenism. 

At  end  of  period  heathenism  is  dead  within  the 
bounds  of  the  old  Roman  Empire  and  Christianity  has 
taken  its  place  as  the  state  religion.  In  the  imperial 
government  and  among  the  Franks  it  is  orthodox, 
among  other  Germans,  Arian.  This  conversion  of 
immigrant  Germans  was  the  principal  mission  work 
of  the  period.  Details  as  to  where,  by  whom  and 
when  Germans  were  converted  to  Arianism,  then  to 
orthodoxy,  unknown  for  most  part ;  apparently  it  was 
with  ease  and  without  persecution.  The  Arian  W. 
Goths  followed  their  king  into  the  Cath.  Ch.  at  Synod 


OF  CHURCH  HISTORY  65 

of  Toledo  589;  Arian  Vandals  were  destroyed  by 
imperial  forces  534,  E.  Goths  555;  Franks  (496)  and 
Suevi  were  converted  to  Catholicism  directly  from 
heathenism;  Arian  Burgundian  kingdom  destroyed 
534.  Probable  reasons:  (i)  Their  religion  was  a 
nature  worship,  which  probably  had  little  hold  on  them, 
was  unorganized,  without  priests,  images,  temples, 
social  worship,  liturgy,  sacred  books  or  theology.  (2) 
In  migrating  they  left  behind  all  sacred  places;  gods 
were  local  deities,  and  hence  largely  left  behind,  too. 
(3)  Christianity's  union  with  culture  and  civilization, 
its  ornate  worship,  great  churches,  theology,  sacred 
books,  priesthood,  etc.,  easily  mastered  these  untutored 
children  of  nature. 

(2)  Missions  outside  the  Empire,  a.  In  the  West, 
N.  i.  412-15  ;  H.  i.  617-31 ;  651-61.  (a)  Ireland  evan- 
gelized by  Patrick,  a  Briton.  Carried  captive  to  Ire- 
land, he  escaped,  was  converted,  returned  to  Ireland 
and  began  work  c.  432.  Great  success.  Ireland  soon 
nominally  Christian ;  monastic  organization,  missionary 
enthusiasm,  culture,  deep  piety,  purity  of  life,  evan- 
gelical doctrines,  independent  of  Rome;  Ireland  called 
"Isle  of  Saints." 

(b)  In  Scotland  first  important  missionary  was 
Ninian,  a  Pict,  educated  at  Rome,  who  preached  among 
Picts  of  S.  W.  Scotland,  c.  402  on.  Work  did  not 
prosper  until  Irish  began.  Columba  (521-97),  edu- 
cated Irish  monk,  who  had  done  much  work  in  Ireland, 
settled  with  twelve  companions  at  lona,  563;  evan- 
gelized Picts  and  Scots  over  much  of  Scotland,  founded 
churches  and  monasteries.  This  Christianity  was  inde- 
pendent of  Rome  and  of  the  same  general  character  as 


66  A   GUIDE   TO  THE   STUDY 

that  in  Ireland;  monastic  organization,  emphasis  on 
education,  simple  piety,  missionary  zeal,  evangelical 
doctrines,  purity  of  life. 

b.  Among  the  Germans  (H.  i.  402-4).  Ulfilas 
or  Wolf  (311-81),  an  Arian,  educated  at  Constanti- 
nople, converted  the  West  Goths  to  Arian  Christianity 
(341  onward),  before  they  moved  into  the  Empire, 
reducing  the  Gothic  language  to  writing,  translating 
portions  of  the  Bible  into  it,  thus  beginning  a  German 
literature.  The  other  Germanic  tribes,  except  the 
Franks,  were  originally  converted  to  Arianism,  but 
had  embraced  orthodox  views  for  the  most  part  by  the 
end  of  the  period. 

c.  Jerome  (340-420)  revised  the  Latin  version, 
which  became  the  Bible  of  Western  Christendom  (Vul- 
gate) and  remains  the  Catholic  Bible  to  the  present 
time.  It  has  been  more  widely  used  than  any  other 
version. 

d.  In  the  East  (K.  64;  A.  105 ;  H.  i.  398-402).  (a) 
Persia.  Christianity,  introduced  into  the  region  east 
of  the  Tigris  in  preceding  period,  continued  to  flourish 
in  this.  Under  the  Parthians  Christians  were  not 
molested,  but  under  the  native  Sassanide  dynasty 
(226-632),  who  were  devoted  to  Zoroastrianism  and 
suspected  that  the  Christians  were  allied  with  their 
enemies  the  Romans,  they  were  bitterly  persecuted  at 
times,  e.  g.,  343-78  (when  1600  officials  besides  many 
laity  were  martyred),  418-48  (provoked  by  Christians 
destroying  temple  of  the  sun  at  Susa)  and  465.  In 
410  Bishop  of  Ctesiphon  was  made  head  of  the  church, 
and  in  423  appeals  to  Antioch  were  forbidden,  thus 
severing  the  Persian  from  the  imperial  church. 


OF   CHURCH   HISTORY  67 

The  Nestorians,  driven  from  the  Empire  (431  on- 
ward), were  welcomed  in  Persia,  and  in  498  the  whole 
Persian  church  adopted  Nestorianism  and  henceforth 
had  peace;  development  was  independent,  missions 
flourished,  extending  to  India  and  even  China,  where 
flourishing  churches  were  established;  seminary  at 
Nisibis.    Had  married  clergy,  monasteries  and  schools. 

(b)  Armenia.  Mesrob,  c.  428,  invented  alphabet  and 
translated  Scriptures  into  Armenian,  beginning  the 
golden  age  of  Armenian  literature.  They  resisted 
(c.  450)  an  attempt  of  the  Persians  to  force  Zoroastri- 
anism  on  them,  rejected  Nestorianism,  but  accepted 
Monophysitism,  rejecting  creed  of  Chalcedon,  527. 
Toward  end  of  5th  century  Armenian  church  became 
entirely  independent  of  the  imperial  church.  Had 
married  clergy  and  monasticism.  (c)  Christianity  was 
also  planted  in  Georgia  c.  326  and  flourished.  Also 
planted  in  Yemen  in  Arabia  middle  of  4th  century. 

(d)  Abyssinian  Church  planted  by  Frumentius  and 
Aldesius  from  316  onward,  flourished,  king  a  Chris- 
tian, spread  to  Ethiopia  and  Numidia ;  became  Jacobite 
and  so  remains;  translation  of  Bible;  adopted  various 
Jewish  practices — Sabbath,  distinction  in  meats. 

II.     THE  CHURCH 

Its  Officers,  Organization,  Councils,  Law, 
Ordinances 

I.   Its  Officers 

K.  45;  S.  ii.  48-51;  A.  125-128. 
The  people  had  less  and  less  influence  in  selection 
of  their  officers,  who  more  and  more  formed  a  close 


OS  A   GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 

corporation,  an  exclusive  order,  a  hierarchy.     Most  of 
them  had  only  such  education  as  they  could  pick  up  in 
actual  service  or  in  monastic  or  diocesan  schools.     No 
theological  schools  in  the  West;   in  the  East  five — 
Alexandria,    Cesarea,    Antioch,    Edessa    and    Nisibis 
(Nestorian).      Several  of  the  greatest   fathers   w^ere 
educated  in  heathen  schools,  e.  g.,  Basil,  the  two  Grego- 
ries,  Chrysostom.    Celibacy  was  more  and  more  exalted 
and  finally  required  in  the  East  for  the  bishops,  in  the 
West  for  all  clergy  down  to  subdeacon.     In  the  East 
clergy  from  the  priest  down  are  allowed  to  marry  once, 
but  not  after  ordination.     The  number  of  church  offi- 
cers was  increased  in  the  large  churches  by  creation  of 
stewards  and  secretaries  to  care  for  property,  nurses 
and  burlers  of  the  dead.    There  were  also  arch-presby- 
ters  and   arch-deacons,   the   latter   standing  near  the 
bishop  and  usually  succeeding  him.     Deaconesses  dis- 
appeared in  the  West  about  end  of  period,  while  they 
continued  in  the  East  till  12th  century.     Tonsure  was 
introduced  before  end  of  period ;  in  East,  clergy  wore 
full  heard;  in  West  gradually  discarded  beard  alto- 
gether.    A  solemn  investiture  of  bishops  with  insignia 
of  office  (ring,  crozier  and  pallium)  was  gradually  in- 
troduced.    Clergy  were  freed  from  burdens  of  civil 
life  and  from  jurisdiction  of  civil  courts,  and  made 
subject  to  ecclesiastical  courts  which  gradually  grew 
up  around  the  bishops.     By  end  of  period  bishops  had 
gained  exclusive  right  of  confirming,  ordaining,  and 
consecrating  holy  places  and  holy  oil;  had  attained 
great  eminence  in  society  and  the  state.     Princes  now 
gradually  assumed  right  to  control  selection  of  most 
important  ones  and  in  some  cases  appointed  them.    By- 


OF  CHURCH  HISTORY  69 

zantine  emperors  believed  the  control  of  the  church  a 
part  of  their  rights,  and  gradually  subjected  it  to  the 
state. 

2.    Organization 

N.  i.  393-406;  K.  46;  A.  i.  P663-77;  S.  ii.  P55-64. 

The  West  becomes  more  unified  and  centralized 
under  leadership  of  Bishop  of  Rome;  the  East,  divided 
among  four  patriarchates,  torn  by  ecclesiastical  rivalry 
and  theological  controversy,  broke  up  into  several  sects 
and  divisions. 

a.  Patriarchs.  The  episcopate,  already  divided  into 
country  bishops,  city  bishops  and  metropolitans,  called 
arch-bishops  in  West,  now  developed  five  patriarchs 
(Alexandria,  Antioch,  Rome,  Constantinople  and  Jeru- 
salem) who  had  oversight  over  two  or  more  provinces, 
ordained  metropolitans,  conducted  councils,  published 
decrees  of  councils,  of  Emperors,  etc. 

b.  Roman  Bishop  gradually  extended  his  authority 
over  most  of  the  West.  This  movement  was  opposed 
by  other  bishops,  but  could  not  be  resisted.  Various 
tendencies  assisted  the  bishop  of  Rome  in  this  gradual 
conquest  of  the  other  western  bishops:  (i)  He  was 
only  patriarch  in  West ;  (2)  in  capital  city  of  the  world ; 
(3)  in  only  apostolic  church  in  the  West;  (4)  this 
church  was  thought  to  have  been  founded  by  Peter, 
now  regarded  as  prince  of  the  apostles ;  (5)  it  remained 
staunchly  orthodox,  while  East  was  torn  by  theological 
controversy;  (6)  removal  of  the  emperors  from  Rome; 

(7)  political  confusion  in  West,  due  to  German  in- 
vasion leaving  the  Roman  bishop  the  de  facto  ruler; 

(8)  several  great  bishops,  Leo  I  (440-61),  Gregory  I 
(590-604)  and  others. 


70  A   GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 

c.  Councils.  (K.  43:2;  A.  i.  131;  66;  S.  ii.  65 f.) 
An  ascending  series  of  councils  was  developed :  ( i ) 
Diocesan,  consisting  of  a  bishop  and  his  clergy,  fre- 
quent; (2)  Provincial,  consisting  of  arch-bishop  and 
his  bishops;  (3)  Patriarchal;  (4)  National;  (5)  Ecu- 
menical. The  last  three  w^ere  held  irregularly  at  call  of 
king,  patriarch  or  emperor.  The  Ecumenical,  supposed 
to  represent  all  Christendom,  were  mainly  oriental,  held 
near  Constantinople,  composed  chiefly  of  Greek  bish- 
ops, using  Greek  language,  engaged  with  Greek  theo- 
logical questions.  The  earlier  ones  were  called  by  the 
emperor,  while  later  the  call  was  made  in  conjunction 
with  the  pope.  Emperors  ratified  the  decrees,  making 
them  laws  of  the  Empire;  later  this  was  done  by  the 
pope.  They  exercised  both  judicial  and  legislative 
functions.  The  laity  were  not  represented;  deacons 
and  presbyters  could  deliberate,  but  only  bishops 
voted.  In  matters  of  discipline  the  majority  decided ; 
on  faith  and  morals  unanimity  was  required  and  was 
sometimes  attained  by  exclusion  of  the  intractable. 
Doctrinal  decisions  (dogmas)  were  regarded  as  in- 
spired and  infallible;  disciplinary  decrees  (canons) 
could  be  changed.  These  councils  were  often  charac- 
terized by  intrigue  and  violence.  They  were  Nicea  325, 
I  Constantinople  381,  Ephesus  431,  Chalcedon  451,  II 
Constantinople  553,  III  Constantinople  680,  II  Nicea 

787. 

d.  Ecclesiastical  Courts  and  Canon  Law.  (K.  43: 
3f;  S.  ii.  6y.)  During  this  period  a  body  of  church 
law  grew  up  and  was  practically  complete  by  end  of 
period.  It  was  put  together  in  West  by  Dionysius 
Exiguus,   c.    500    (later  added   to   by   Isidore   B.    of 


OF  CHURCH   HISTORY  71 

Seville),  and  in  East  by  John  Scholasticus,  c.  550.  It 
consists  of  (a)  Apostolic  Canons,  origin  unknown,  (b) 
Canons  of  the  ecumenical  councils,  (c)  Decrees  of 
several  important  provincial  councils,  (d)  Some  letters 
of  the  more  important  bishops,  (e)  Ecclesiastical  laws 
of  the  emperors.  Violations  of  canon  law  were  penal- 
ized by  the  state  and  punished  like  other  crimes.  The 
clergy  were  gradually  exempted  from  jurisdiction  of 
civil  courts  and  law,  being  tried  by  ecclesiastical  (epis- 
copal) courts  according  to  canon  law. 

3.    Ordinances 

N.  i.  425f;  K.  58;  A.  i.  706-25;  S.  ii.  91-98. 

Baptism  and  the  eucharist  have  grown  into  sacra- 
ments, signs  and  mediators  of  inward  grace.  By  end  of 
period  confirmation,  ordination  and  marriage  were  usu- 
ally added  to  baptism  and  eucharist  as  sacraments. 

(i)  Baptism.  Infant  baptism,  introduced  in  pre- 
ceding period,  spread  rapidly  in  this,  but  was  not  yet 
universal  at  end  of  period;  accompanied  by  so-called 
god-parents  or  sponsors  to  respond  for  the  child ;  trine 
immersion  in  the  East  and  in  West  outside  of  Spain; 
pouring  allowed  only  in  case  of  sickness ;  heretical  bap- 
tism, if  done  in  name  of  Trinity,  generally  accepted 
after  imposition  of  hands  by  bishop.  Baptism  of  adults 
was  preceded  by,  and  that  of  children  followed  by,  a 
course  of  instruction  which  was  becoming  briefer  and 
less  thorough.  Baptism  was  administered,  if  possible, 
at  Easter,  Pentecost  or  Epiphany,  and  by  end  of  period 
often  if  not  usually  in  a  baptistry.  Ceremonies  preced- 
ing baptism  were  exorcism,  breathing  on  candidate, 
touching  ears  with  exclamation  **Ephphatha,"  making 


72  A  GUIDE  TO  THE  STUDY 

sign  of  cross  on  forehead  and  breast  and  giving  salt; 
follozving  the  ordinance  the  candidate  was  clothed  in 
white  and  given  milk  and  honey.  Baptism  was  con- 
sidered a  saving  ordinance,  removing  the  guilt  of  all 
preceding  sin  and  making  an  indelible  impression  on 
the  soul.     Without  it  salvation  was  impossible. 

(2)  Confirmation  consisted  in  anointing  forehead, 
nose,  ear  and  breast  with  consecrated  oil,  and  the  im- 
position of  hands  of  bishop  (or  priest  in  East)  be- 
stowing Holy  Ghost.  It  was  thought  to  complete 
baptism  and  confirm  its  gracious  effects. 

(3)  Eucharist  (the  center  and  heart  of  worship) 
"is  both  a  sacrament  wherein  God  conveys  to  us  a 
certain  blessing,  and  a  sacrifice  which  man  offers  to 
God.  As  a  sacrament,  or  the  communion,  it  stands  at 
the  head  of  all  sacred  rites;  as  a  sacrifice  it  stands 
alone."  It  was  growing  to  be  the  center,  the  holy  of 
holies  in  the  worship.  Early  in  period  the  bread  and 
wine  were  taken  from  offerings  made  by  the  congre- 
gation ;  later  they  were  provided  by  the  priest,  a.  As  a 
sacrament  the  eucharist  was  not  the  subject  of  con- 
troversy or  church  action  in  this  period ;  hence  various 
shades  of  opinion  existed,  but  it  was  regarded  as  most 
holy  and  as  in  some  sense  containing  the  presence  of 
the  glorified  Christ,  but  was  not  adored.  The  wine 
was  mixed  with  water;  the  Greek  church  used  leav- 
ened, the  Latin  unleavened  bread.  In  N.  Africa  and 
the  East  there  was  infant  communion  and  the  with- 
holding of  the  cup  from  the  laity.  In  the  preceding 
period  secret  (disciplina  arcani),  the  eucharist  now  be- 
comes public  and  the  center  of  worship,  b.  As  a 
sacrifice  it  is  the  most  solemn  mystery  of  the  church, 


OF  CHURCH  HISTORY  73 

the  point  where  the  human  and  divine  best  meet  and 
mingle.  The  Ante-Nicene  fathers  regarded  the  euchar- 
ist  as  a  "thank-offering  of  the  church ;  the  congregation 
offering  the  consecrated  elements  of  bread  and  wine, 
and  in  them  itself,  to  God."  As  the  consecrated  ele- 
ments came  to  be  identified  with  Christ,  it  became  a 
sacrifice  of  Christ,  a  daily  unbloody  repetition  of  the 
tragedy  of  Calvary,  the  antitype  of  the  Mosaic  sacrifice, 
offered  only  by  a  priest,  efficacious  for  the  whole 
church,  living  and  dead,  for  whom  prayer  is  made  at 
that  time.  An  elaborate  ceremony  of  consecration 
gradually  grew  up,  intended  to  repeat  the  incidents  of 
the  crucifixion  and  effect  all  that  art  can  do  to  stimulate 
devotion.  This  conception  is  complete  in  Gregory  I, 
and  henceforth  the  sacrifice  more  and  more  over- 
shadows the  sacrament. 

111.     Worship 

K.  Sees.  55-60;  A.  i.  P685-706;  S.  ii.  P74-90,  98;  102-116. 

Questions  relating  to  worship  were  not  discussed  as 
those  in  theology,  and  consequently  worship  was  not 
as  uniform  as  was  theology;  many  local  differences 
with  broader  variations  between  the  Latin  and  Greek 
churches.  The  practice  of  the  Roman  church  grad- 
ually extended  over  the  entire  West.  Worship  devel- 
ops very  rapidly,  becoming  more  elaborate  and  complex 
in  every  respect  during  this  period.  Earlier,  worship 
had  been  largely  secret,  in  private  houses,  with  small 
congregations  of  simple  people;  now  it  is  public,  in 
church  buildings  with  great  congregations  composed 
of  the  rich,  cultured  and  prominent.  Hence  its  rapid 
elaboration. 


74  A   GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 

1.  Place.  The  few  church  buildings  erected  before 
the  Diocletian  persecutions  were  destroyed  in  that 
struggle.  Church  building  proper  begins  with  Con- 
stantine,  who  with  his  mother  greatly  stimulated  it. 
In  West  the  churches  were  basilicas — long  rectangles, 
standing  east  and  west.  Chief  parts  were  ( i )  Portico, 
in  west  end,  for  the  unbaptized — unbelievers,  catechu- 
mens, etc.  (2)  Nave,  for  baptized  laity;  it  also  con- 
tained the  reading  desk,  pulpit,  seats  for  singers,  etc. 
(3)  Choir,  in  east  end,  elevated,  shut  off  from  nave 
by  screen,  containing  the  altar,  seats  for  priests  and 
bishop's  throne;  before  end  of  period  cruciform  build- 
ings appeared. 

In  the  East  the  Byzantine  style,  greatly  stimulated 
by  Justinian,  predominated — over  center  of  Church  an 
enormous  hemispherical  dome  supported  by  massive 
columns  and  surrounded  by  four  smaller  domes  in  a 
square.  Baptistries  were  sometimes  separate  buildings, 
usually  round  or  polygonal  Churches  ornamented  with 
frescoes,  mosaics  and  reliefs  of  Christ,  Mary  and  other 
saints,  and  symbolic  figures.  Monks  began  to  erect 
large  monasteries. 

2.  Time,  (i)  Weekly.  Clergy  and  monks  kept 
seven  hours  of  prayer  daily  (3  A.  M.,  6  A.  M.,  etc., 
to  9  P.  M.);  Wed.,  Fri.  and  sometimes  Sat.  were 
kept  as  partial  fast  days.  Sunday  was  chief  day  of 
worship.  Civil  Sunday  begins  with  Constantine  who 
prohibited  in  321  manual  labor  in  the  cities,  judicial 
proceedings  and  military  exercises  on  that  day,  while 
the  soldiers,  pagan  and  Christian,  were  required  to 
worship.  Subsequent  emperors  strengthened  Sunday 
legislation  and  gave  legal  sanction  to  other  holy  days. 


OF  CHURCH   HISTORY  75 

(2)  Christian  Year  is  almost  completed  in  this  period, 
and  is  intended  to  set  forth  annually  in  pictorial  and 
dramatic  form  belief  in  the  great  facts  of  redemption, 
'*a  chronological  confession  of  faith."  The  order, 
date  and  character  of  the  celebrations  are  determined 
partly  by  the  Old  Testament,  partly  by  gospel  history, 
partly  by  the  natural  year,  and  partly  by  pre-existing 
heathen  and  Jewish  festivals,  which  were  adopted  and 
adapted.  When  completed  there  were  three  cycles: 
Christmas,  Easter  and  Pentecost,  representing  respec- 
tively (i)  birth  of  Christ;  (2)  his  passion  and  resur- 
rection; (3)  gift  of  Holy  Spirit;  each  preceded  by 
preparatory  and  followed  by  completing  ceremonies, 
(i)  Christmas,  Dec.  25th  (closely  related  to  Saturna- 
lia and  other  heathen  festivals  of  that  season),  in  cele- 
bration of  Christ's  birth,  first  appears  at  Rome  c.  360. 
It  is  preceded  by  four  (in  East  six)'  Advent  Sundays, 
and  is  followed  by  feast  of  the  naming  of  Jesus,  Jan. 
1st,  and  Epiphany  on  Jan.  6th  (in  East  the  feast  of 
his  baptism  and  first  miracle,  in  West  feast  of  the 
Three  Kings).  (2)  Easter  (first  Sunday  after  first 
full  moon  after  vernal  equinox)",  in  celebration  of  the 
resurrection,  is  preceded  by  forty  days  (not  counting 
Sundays)  of  repentance  and  fasting  (Quadragesima, 
Lent),  beginning  with  Ash  Wednesday.  Passion  or 
Holy  Week  begins  with  Palm  Sunday  (triumphal 
entry),  followed  by  Maundy  Thursday  (Institution  of 
Supper  J,  Good  Friday  (crucifixion).  Great  Sabbath 
(Jesus  in  grave,  a  favorite  time  for  baptisms),  Easter 
Sunday  (resurrection),  a  day  of  great  rejoicing.  (3) 
Pentecost  (seventh  Sunday  after  Easter),  feast  of  the 
Holy  Ghost.    The  whole  period  of  seven  weeks  between 


76  A  GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 

Easter  and  Pentecost  a  joyous  season,  a  continuous 
Sunday  (no  fasting  or  kneeling  in  prayer).  The 
fortieth  day  (Thursday)  Ascension  day.  After  loth 
century  Sunday  following  Pentecost  was  celebrated 
as  feast  of  the  Trinity,  and  still  later  the  following 
Thursday  became  Corpus  Christi,  the  feast  of  tran- 
substantiation,  thus  completing  the  cycle. 

Gradually  every  day  in  the  year  became  sacred  to 
some  biblical  or  other  saint  (several  to  different  events 
in  the  life  of  Mary). 

3.  Objects.  Before  end  of  period  there  is  worship 
of  saints,  images,  relics  and  angels.  The  invocation 
of  Mary,  who  was  thought  to  have  remained  a  virgin. 
free  from  actual  (and  by  some  authors,  original)  sin, 
to  have  risen  from  the  dead  and  to  have  been  taken  up 
to  heaven  {assumption) ,  begins  in  2nd  half  of  the  4th 
or  early  5th  century.  She  came  to  be  called  "Mother 
of  God,"  ''Queen  of  Heaven,"  the  compassionate,  who 
moves  her  Son  to  mercy;  a  sort  of  restoration  of  the 
female  divinities  of  the  heathen.  Other  saints  (biblical 
characters  and  Christian  martyrs)  were  venerated  and 
invoked  from  beginning  of  5th  century;  so  angels; 
guardian  angels  led  to  belief  in  saints  as  patrons  of 
countries,  trades,  etc.  James  of  Spain,  Andrew  of 
Greece,  Luke  of  Painters,  etc.  Churches  and  chapels 
were  built  over  graves  of  martyrs  to  whom  they  were 
dedicated.  This  descended  from  the  heathen  hero- 
worship,  and  is  a  sort  of  refined  polytheism.  In  order 
to  avoid  heathen  abuses  that  poured  into  the  church, 
the  fathers  invented  a  distincion  between  douleia  (ser- 
vice given  to  saints,  images,  relics)  and  latreia  (wor- 
ship of  God).     This  new  idolatry  produced  a  new 


OF  CHURCH  HISTORY  'jy 

mythology — Acta  Sanctorum — lives  or  stories  of 
saints;  very  extensive.  Invocation  of  saints  was  fol- 
lowed by  veneration  of  relics — parts  of  their  bodies, 
objects  connected  with  the  lives  or  bodies  of  saints  and 
of  Christ.  Immense  traffic  in  these  (largely  fraudu- 
lent) ;  miraculous  cures  by  relics.  Images  were  pro- 
duced by  both  sculpture  and  painting.  Sculptured 
images  mostly  in  bas  and  high  relief,  as  at  present  in 
E.  Church.  Cross  and  before  end  of  period  crucifix  in 
use  in  worship. 

Processions  (thanksgiving  or  penitential)  after 
Constantine  on  great  festival  occasions ;  clergy,  monks 
and  people;  singing,  bearing  images,  candles,  relics, 
banners,  etc. 

Pilgrimages  to  Holy  Land  begin  in  2nd  century,  to 
Rome  and  other  places  later ;  regarded  as  a  meritorious 
work. 

4.  Content.  Public  worship  now  entirely  litur- 
gical, conducted  by  authorized  officers  only,  but  in 
language  of  the  people  and  not  uniform;  eucharist  is 
center  of  the  service ;  various  liturgies — in  East,  those 
of  St.  Clement,  of  St.  James,  of  St.  Mark,  of  Edessa 
and  of  St.  Chrysostom — in  West,  Old  Galican,  Old 
Spanish,  African,  that  of  St.  Ambrose,  the  Roman,  etc. 

Special  garments  worn  during  services,  but  ordinary 
dress  at  other  times.  Celebration  of  mass  and  Euchar- 
ist was  center   (see  above).     Other  elements  were: 

( 1 )  reading  O.  and  N.  Testaments,  in  West  arranged 
in  lessons  suited  to  the  season  in  the  Christian  year; 

(2)  Singing  Psalms  and  an  increasing  number  of 
hymns;  trained  singers;  (3)  Prayers;  (4)  Preaching 
by  the  bishop.     This  the   golden  age  of   preaching 


78  A   GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 

among  the  Latin  and  Greek  fathers.  Among  the 
great  Greek  preachers  were  Athanasius,  Chrysostom, 
the  "Three  Cappadocians,"  Eusebius  of  Nicomedia  and 
others ;  among  Latins,  Ambrose,  Augustine  and  others. 
Sermons  were  rhetorical,  built  on  classical  models;  of 
great  ability  from  every  point  of  view. 

IV.  The  Development  of  Theology — 
Controversies 
This  was  the  golden  age  of  theological  develop- 
ment and  formulation.  Never  was  Christendom  so 
torn  by  controversy  about  fundamental  things.  Its 
history  is  the  story  of  the  development  of  Christian 
truth  under  the  influence  of  classical  culture,  and  spe- 
cifically of  philosophy.  The  sources  were  the  Scrip- 
tures (including  Apocrypha)  and  tradition  which  de- 
termined and  interpreted  the  content  of  Scripture.  The 
process  was  controversy,  carried  on  chiefly  by  the 
Greeks,  and  it  eventuated  in  statements  of  doctrine  by 
ecumenical  councils,  regarded  as  inspired;  their  ac- 
ceptance necessary  to  salvation.  Councils  were  often 
marked  by  intrigue  and  violence  and  led  to  schisms. 
Their  decrees  were  accepted  as  laws  of  the  empire, 
and  were  often  enforced  by  the  imperial  power.  The 
main  theological  controversies  were  (i)  Trinitarian, 
(2)  Origenistic,  (3)  Christological,  (4)  Anthropo- 
logical. 

I.   Trinitarian  Discussion  Continued — Arianism 

N.  i.  324-31;  K.  49,  50;  H.  i.  427-38;  A.  i.  110-112;  S.  iii.  117-132. 

The  final  stage  of  the  trinitarian  controversy  was 

started  by  the  priest  Arius  at  Alexandria  318.     It 

involved  the  deity  of  Christ  and  the  entire  conception 


OF  CHURCH   HISTORY  79 

of  God.  Arians  held  that  the  Logos  existed  before 
the  incarnation  but  was  not  eternal;  he  was  the  first 
creation  of  God  and  himself  then  created  all  else  (even 
the  Holy  Spirit),  was  worthy  of  worship,  but  did  not 
perfectly  comprehend  God  or  perfectly  reveal  Him. 
The  controversy  passed  through  four  stages:  (i) 
From  318  to  temporary  victory  of  orthodoxy  at  Nicea 
325;  (2)  reaction  and  temporary  victory  of  Arianism 
325  to  361;  (3)  second  reaction  and  final  victory  of 
orthodoxy  in  the  empire  361  to  381;  (4)  gradual 
conversion  of  Arian  Germans  to  orthodoxy,  extending 
to  about  600.  In  general  most  Germans  and  most 
Greeks  were  Arian,  while  Latins  were  orthodox. 

(i)  The  controversy  started  (318)  at  Alexandria 
and  quickly  spread  to  adjacent  regions.  Arius  resisted 
all  efforts  to  reclaim  him  to  orthodoxy  and  was  ex- 
communicated at  Alexandria  321.  After  a  vain  at- 
tempt to  restore  harmony  Constantine  called  a  world 
^  (ecumenical)  council  to  settle  the  dispute.  318  bishops 
out  of  a  total  of  1,800  came,  only  seven  from  the 
West ;  a  Greek  council  almost  wholly.  Three  parties — 
Arian  (Christ  created,  of  different  essence  from  that  of 
the  Father),  Semi-Arian  (Christ  uncreated,  of  like  es- 
sence with  Father),  and  Orthodox  (Christ  of  same 
essence  with  Father).  Through  the  influence  of  Atha- 
nasius,  a  young  deacon  of  Alexandria,  and  the  Em- 
peror, orthodoxy  triumphed  in  the  Nicene  Creed 
(C.  C.  II.  57-61 ),  which  declared  Christ  is  true  God,  of 
true  God,  one  in  essence  with  the  Father  while  distinct 
in  person.  Arius  was  banished,  his  books  burned,  and 
his  followers  declared  to  be  enemies  of  Christianity. 
(2)    Reaction  (325-361)  soon  set  in;  the  subject 


8o  A  GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 

became  a  question  of  imperial  politics.  Constantine 
was  won  over  to  side  of  Arius ;  councils  at  Tyre  and 
Constantinople  (335)  condemned  Athanasius  (Bishop 
of  Alexandria  since  328);  he  was  banished  (336). 
Arius  would  have  been  restored  to  church  fellowship 
at  Constantinople  but  for  his  sudden  death  (336).  Of 
the  sons  of  Constantine,  Constantine  II  was  orthodox; 
effected  restoration  of  Athanasius  338 ;  again  banished 
340;  synod  of  Rome  (341)  supported,  that  of  Antioch 
(341 )  condemned  Athanasius ;  two  emperors  call  coun- 
cil of  Sardica  343  to  settle  division  between  East  and 
West;  meeting  split,  orthodox  holding  council  at  Sar- 
dica and  Arians  at  Philippopolis ;  346  Athanasius  again 
restored;  but  Constantius  was  fanatical  Arian,  and 
when  he  became  sole  ruler  (350)  forced  Arianism  on 
the  entire  empire  till  his  death  (361). 

(3)  But  the  Arians  became  divided  among  them- 
selves into  Arians,  who  thought  the  logos  of  different 
substance  (heteroousians),  and  semi-Arians,  who  de- 
clared that  the  logos  was  of  like  substance  with  the 
Father  (homoiousians).  Julian  recalled  orthodox 
bishops,  thus  causing  great  confusion.  Orthodoxy 
gradually  regained  a  dominant  position,  and  Theo- 
dosius  required  all  his  subjects  to  confess  the  orthodox 
faith;  called  council  of  Constantinople  (381),  which 
reaffirmed  the  Nicene  Creed  with  some. slight  changes, 
added  a  clause  on  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  then  forcibly 
suppressed  all  Arian  worship,  banishing  Arian  bishops ; 
Arianism  soon  disappeared  from  the  East. 

(4)  Conversion  of  Germans  to  orthodoxy  can  not 
be  traced. 

With  the  Nicene  Creed  the  Greek  church   rested 


OF  CHURCH  HISTORY  8i 

content,  but  in  West  filioque  (and  the  Son)  was  added 
to  the  creed,  at  the  council  of  Toledo  (589)  on  pro- 
cession of  Holy  Spirit.  The  Athanasian  Creed  drawn 
up  by  an  unknown  author  of  the  5th  century  (C.  C. 
n.  66-71),  in  the  West  is  a  fuller  and  bolder  state- 
ment of  the  equality  of  the  three  persons  of  the  god- 
head, and  has  more  accurately  expressed  the  convic- 
tions of  the  majority  of  orthodox  Christians  than  even 
the  Nicene  Creed. 

2.   Origenistic  Controversy 

S.  I33f;  A.  i.  ii3f;  K.  51;  N.  i.  332-5;  H.  i.  451-52. 
This  controversy  was  over  the  question  of  the  ortho- 
doxy of  Origen,  was  personal  and  exceedingly  bitter, 
but  unimportant  in  the  development  of  doctrine. 

3.    Christological  Controversies 

N.  i.  335-58;  K.  52;  H.  i.  439-50;  A.  i.  1 18-124;  S.  I35-I45. 
The  nature  of  the  person  of  Christ  involved  in  all 
preceding  discussions  of  Trinity.  Some  had  denied 
the  reality  or  completeness  of  His  divinity,  others  the 
reality  or  completeness  of  His  humanity.  It  had  now 
been  officially  decided  that  He  was  very  God.  It  re- 
mained to  determine  whether  He  was  truly  human, 
and  if  so  to  determine  the  relation  between  the  human 
and  the  divine  natures.  Christians  had  generally  re- 
garded Him  as  both  man  and  God,  but  there  had  been 
no  sharp  definitions  as  to  these  natures  or  their  relation 
to  each  other.  The  problem  was  precisely  the  opposite 
of  that  in  the  preceding  controversy.  There  it  was  to  \ 
find  a  plurality  of  persons  in  a  unity  of  essence  or 
nature;  here  it  was  to  preserve  unity  of  person  with 
two  natures.     The  former  dealt  with  the  pre-existent 


82  A   GUIDE   TO  THE   STUDY 

Logos,  the  nature  and  inter-relation  of  the  divine  per- 
sons in  eternity;  the  latter  with  the  person  of  the 
historic  Christ  as  he  lived  on  earth. 

Two  general  tendencies  existed :  the  Antiochian, 
which  emphasized  the  human  nature  and  held  the  two 
.natures  apart,  and  the  Alexandrian,  which  emphasized 
the  divine  nature  and  the  unity  of  person.  This  con- 
troversy rose  in  the  midst  of  the  former  one,  and  passed 
through  several  stages,  lasting  over  three  centuries. 

( 1 )  Apollinarism  (362-381 )  developed  by  Appollin- 
aris  of  Laodicea  before  close  of  preceding  controversy. 
He  believed  that  man  was  a  trichotomy  (body,  soul  and 
spirit),  and  asserted  that  Christ  had  human  body  and 
soul,  while  the  place  of  the  human  spirit  was  supplied 
by  the  Logos,  thus  denying  the  completeness  of  his 
humanity;  only  thus,  he  thought,  could  Christ  be  one 
personality,  be  sinless  and  provide  an  adequate  atone- 
ment for  the  race.  This  view,  which  preserved  his 
deity  but  sacrificed  his  humanity  in  the  interest  of 
unity,  was  condemned  by  several  provincial  councils 
and  finally  by  the  Council  of  Constantinople  381.  By 
this  action  the  Church  negatively  asserted  that  Christ's 
human  nature,  as  well  as  the  divine,  was  complete,  and 
henceforth  the  only  question  was  one  of  relation  be- 
tween the  two  natures.  The  Apollinarians  were  ex- 
communicated, persecuted,  and  later  united  with  the 
Monophysites. 

(2)  Nest  onanism  was  started  at  Constantinople  by 
Nestorius,  monk,  priest  of  Antioch,  an  eloquent 
preacher  and  heresy-hunter,  educated  by  Theodore  of 
Mopsuestia,  the  real  author  of  the  views;  he  became 
patriarch  of  Constantinople  in  428.     He  found  much 


OF   CHURCH   HISTORY  83 

that  displeased  him;  he  objected  to  the  term  theotokos 
("Mother  of  God"),  applied  to  Mary,  who,  he  said, 
did  not  bear  God  but  the  man  Jesus,  or  Christ ;  regard- 
ing the  two  natures  in  Christ,  as  working  harmoniously, 
but  so  distinct  as  almost  to  involve  double  personality. 
Christ  was  God  and  man,  not  God-man ;  two  complete, 
inseparable  natures.  He  was  opposed  by  Cyril  of 
Alexandria,  condemned  by  synods  at  Rome  and  Alex- 
andria 430.  Council  of  Ephesus  (431),  called  by  the 
two  emperors,  was  very  violent,  split,  the  two  parties 
excommunicated  each  other,  accomplished  nothing.  In 
433  a  compromise  under  imperial  pressure  was  reached 
by  which  Nestorius  was  banished,  his  views  con- 
demned, "Mother  of  God"  approved.  His  followers, 
driven  out  of  the  empire,  fled  to  Persia;  favored  by 
Persian  kings,  in  498  they  renounced  all  connection 
with  the  orthodox  church  of  the  empire,  developed 
their  own  patriarch,  and  have  since  remained  inde- 
pendent of  both  the  Greek  and  Roman  churches.  For 
several  centuries  they  flourished,  spread  to  India 
(where  they  are  called  Thomas  Christians)  and  China. 
They  brought  many  Mongols  to  Christianity,  but  were 
almost  exterminated  by  Tamerlane.  They  still  exist  in 
the  valleys  of  Armenia  and  Kurdistan,  with  a  patriarch 
on  the  border  of  Turkey  and  Persia.  They  differ 
from  the  Greek  church  in  that  they  refuse  to  recognize 
the  council  of  Ephesus,  to  worship  Mary  or  use  images, 
deny  the  doctrine  of  purgatory  and  transubstantiation 
and  have  more  simple  worship. 

(3)  Eutychianism  or  Monophysitism  was  a  reaction 
against  Nestorianism,  a  further  development  of  Cyril's 
views.    Eutyches  ( from  whom  the  heresy  was  named), 


84  A   GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 

an  aged  archimandrite  of  Constantinople,  emphasized 
the  divine  in  Christ,  denying  that  Christ  had  two 
natures  after  the  incarnation.  The  human  nature  is  so 
assimilated  by  the  Logos  that  His  body  is  not  of  the 
same  nature  with  ours.  He  was  of  two  natures,  but  in 
only  one.  *'A11  human  attributes  are  transferred  to  the 
one  subject,  the  humanized  Logos,"  so  that  God  suf- 
fered and  died.  He  was  opposed  by  Theodoret;  by 
Domnus,  patriarch  of  Antioch;  by  Flavian,  patriarch 
of  Constantinople;  supported  by  Dioscurus,  patriarch 
of  Alexandria.  Both  parties  appealed  to  the  emperor 
and  to  Leo,  Bishop  of  Rome.  Eutyches  was  deposed 
and  excommunicated  by  a  local  synod  at  Constan- 
tinople (448)  and  Leo  wrote  Flavian  his  famous  dog- 
matic letter  opposing  this  view.  Council  called  by 
Emperor  Theodosius  H  at  Ephesus  449  (Robber 
Synod),  held  under  presidency  of  Dioscurus,  was  very 
violent,  upheld  Eutyches,  declared  in  favor  of  one 
nature  in  Christ,  condemned  dyophysitism  and  deposed 
Theodoret,  Flavian  and  Leo.  The  controversy  con- 
tinued and  the  new  E.  emperor,  Marcian,  with  the  W. 
emperor,  called  a  new  council  (Chalcedon,  451),  which 
annulled  the  acts  of  Ephesus,  deposed  Dioscurus  and 
other  leaders  of  the  Eutychians,  and  defined  the  person 
of  Christ  as  composed  of  two  natures,  complete  and 
unmixed  but  inseparable,  in  one  person  (C.  C.  H. 
62-5).  This  creed  contains  the  prevalent  Christology 
of  the  Greek,  Latin  and  Protestant  churches  to  this  day. 
The  controversy  (henceforth  called  Monophysite  or 
one  nature)  continued  with  great  violence,  causing 
bloodshed  and  rebellion,  the  emperors  making  frequent 
ineffective  attempts  at  a  settlement.  The  Emperor  Zeno 


OF  CHURCH   HISTORY  85 

issued  (482)  a  formula  of  Concord  (Henoticon), 
which  sought  to  reconcile  the  two  parties  by  the  avoid- 
ance of  disputed  expressions,  the  condemnation  of  both 
Nestorianism  and  Eutychianism,  and  the  reaffirming 
of  the  Nicene  Creed  as  alone  valid,  thus  tacitly  setting 
aside  the  Chalcedonian  creed. 

This  caused  the  Bishop  of  Rome  to  renounce  com- 
munion with  the  East  for  35  years  (484-519)  when 
the  Emperor  Justin  canceled  the  Henoticon  and  ban- 
ished its  adherents  who  fled  to  Alexandria  largely. 

Hope  of  reconciling  the  Monophysites  to  the  Church 
in  Egypt  led  Justinian  to  issue  a  decree  (544)  con- 
demning Theodore  of  Mopsuestia,  the  real  author  of 
Nestorianism,  the  writings  of  Theodoret  against  Cyril, 
and  the  letter  of  Ihas,  bishop  of  Edessa,  to  the  Persian 
bishop  Maris  complaining  of  the  outrages  of  Cyril's 
party  in  Edessa,  though  the  last  two  had  been  de- 
clared orthodox  by  council  of  Chalcedon.  This  decree, 
accepted  in  East,  was  violently  opposed  in  West  and 
precipitated  the  so-called  controversy  of  the  three  chap- 
ters. To  end  it  Justinian  called  fifth  ecumenical  council 
at  Constantinople  (553),  which  condemned  Theodore 
and  the  three  chapters,  but  vindicated  the  persons  of 
Theodoret  and  Ibas,  thus  confirming  the  decree  of  the 
emperor,  and  favoring  monophysitism.  The  accept- 
ance of  these  decrees  by  the  Bishop  of  Rome  led 
Africa,  Illyria  and  N.  Italy  to  excommunicate  him,  and 
the  schism  continued  till  Gregory  I. 

Notwithstanding  the  concessions  of  this  Council  the 
Monophysites  founded  churches  independent  of  and 
hostile  to  the  Catholic  church  with  its  dyophysitism, 
and  to  the  empire  (565  on),  and  in  7th  century  most 


86  A  GUIDE  TO  THE  STUDY 

of  them  assisted  the  Moslems  against  the  orthodox 
Christians  of  the  Empire.  The  most  important  Mono- 
physite  churches  are  the  following:  (a)  The  Jacobites 
in  Syria,  Mesopotamia  and  Babylonia,  named  after 
Jacob  Zanzalus  (541-78),  their  organizer  and  restorer. 
Their  head  is  called  Patriarch  of  Antioch,  but  resides 
elsewhere.  A  feeble  remnant  is  now  found  in  Turkey 
and  Persia,  (b)  The  Copts  of  Egypt  have  since  536 
had  a  ''Patriarch  of  Alexandria,"  who  commonly  re- 
sides at  Cairo  with  jurisdiction  over  Egypt,  Nubia  and 
Abyssinia.  They  assisted  the  Moslems  to  conquer 
Egypt  in  640,  but  were  afterwards  bitterly  persecuted 
themselves.  They  practice  circumcision  and  the  Jewish 
law  of  meats,  (c)  The  Abyssinian  church,  a  daughter 
of  the  former,  adopted  monophysite  views,  rejects  the 
Council  of  Chalcedon,  observes  the  Jewish  Sabbath  and 
also  Sunday,  Jewish  law  of  meats,  and  has  other 
peculiarities,  (d)  The  'Armenians  fell  away  from  the 
Greek  church  in  552,  from  which  time  they  date  their 
era ;  and  in  595  adopted  the  Monophysite  creed.  They 
are  the  most  important  of  the  Monophysite  churches 
and  number  several  millions  in  Turkey,  Russia  and 
elsewhere.  Some  of  them  have  joined  the  Roman 
Catholic  church. 

(4)  Monothelite  (one  will)  Controversy,  the  last 
phase  of  the  long  and  bitter  Christological  controversy, 
w^as  the  result  of  an  attempt  by  the  Emperor  Herac- 
lius  to  win  the  Monophysites  back  to  the  unity  of  the 
church  by  asserting  one  will  in  Christ.  In  614  the 
Persians  overran  Syria  and  Palestine,  plundering  Jeru- 
salem and  w^asting  N.  Africa  as  far  west  as  Carthage ; 
by  621  they  were  threatening  Constantinople  and  the 


OF  CHURCH  HISTORY  S>7 

emperor  needed  the  help  of  his  alienated  subjects.    The 
patriarchs  of  Constantinople,  Antioch  and  Alexandria 
and  Pope  Honorius  were  won  to  this  view,  and  many 
Monophysites  were  restored  to  the  church;  but  the 
patriarch  of  Jerusalem  condemned  it  634,  and  a  violent 
controversy  was  started.     In  638  Heraclius  issued  a 
decree    (Ecthesis)   teaching  one  will  and   forbidding 
further  discussion.     The  popes  and  various  provincial 
councils  now  condemned  it,  and  the  controversy  waxed 
warm.    The  Emperor  Constans  II  substituted  a  decree 
(Typus)  forbidding  the  teaching  of  either  view  (643), 
and  had  the  pope,  who  resisted,  brought  in  chains  to 
Constantinople  and  banished.    The  next  emperor  called 
sixth  ecu.  council    (i   Trullan)    (C.   C.   II.   72f),  at 
Constantinople  (680),  which  affirmed  two  wills,  con- 
demned the  Monothelites  as  accursed  heretics  (among 
them  Pope  Honorius);  this  action  was  approved  by 
Pope  Leo  II.     Practically  the  whole  Christian  world 
accepted  this  decision,  and  thus  ended  the  long  con- 
troversy.    Christ  had  two  natures,  human  and  divine, 
both  complete,  unmixed  but  inseparably  united;  and 
two  wills,  acting  harmoniously  the  human  in  subjection 
to  the  divine. 

4.    Anthropology — Pelagian  Controversy 
(412-529  A.  D.) 

H.  i.  453-62;  A.  ii6f;  K.  53;  N.  i.  3S9-7I ;  S.  iii.  146-160. 
Hitherto  man's  nature  has  been  little  discussed,  but 
the  freedom  of  the  will  and  moral  responsibility  had 
been  emphasized  against  the  types  of  philosophy  then 
prevalent.  Former  controversies  had  been  oriental  and 
Greek ;  this  was  Western  and  Latin.     The  questions  at 


S8  A  GUIDE  TO  THE  STUDY 

issue  were  never  authoritatively  decided  by  ecumenical 
councils  and  hence  are  still  open.  There  is  no  orthodox 
anthropology.  The  two  extremes  were  represented  by 
Pelagius,  a  British  monk  (assisted  by  the  two  Latins, 
Celestius  and  Julian  of  Eclanum),  and  Augustine, 
Bishop  of  Hippo.  Both  systems  were  fairly  complete 
and  logical,  while  standing  in  sharp  opposition.  Pela- 
gius emphasized  the  goodness  and  ability  of  man,  as- 
sisted by  God,  Augustine  the  ruin  and  helplessness  of 
man  and  the  continuous  sovereign  activity  of  God.  The 
two  systems  grew  largely  out  of  the  personal  experi- 
ences of  their  respective  advocates.  Augustine's  was 
a  divine  monergism,  Pelagius'  almost  a  human  moner- 
gism;  the  soul  of  the  former  is  divine  grace,  that  of 
the  latter  human  freedom.  Some  of  the  leading  con- 
trasts were  as  follows :  ( i )  Primitive  man.  P.  Man 
was  innocent,  endowed  with  absolute  free  will,  but  by 
nature  mortal.  'A'.  He  was  innocent,  endowed  with  a 
will  free  but  inclined  to  good,  and  capable  by  con- 
tinuous obedience  of  becoming  unable  to  sin,  and  was 
by  nature  immortal.  (2)  The  Fall.  P.  It  brought 
spiritual  death  to  Adam,  but  affected  his  posterity  only 
as  an  example.  A.  It  brought  spiritual  and  physical 
death  to  Adam  and  through  him  to  the  entire  race. 
(3)  Man  after  the  Fall.  P.  Every  man  enters  the 
world  as  innocent  and  free  as  Adam  was  before  the 
fall,  and  falls  into  sin  by  example  only.  A.  Every  man 
comes  into  the  world  with  a  corrupt  anil  sinful  nature 
(inherited),  incapable  of  real  righteousness.  (4)  Will. 
P.  It  is  always  free,  equally  capable  of  choosing  good 
and  evil.  A.  It  was  free  before  the  fall  and  inclined 
to  righteousness,  but  with  the  fall  it  lost  its  freedom  to 


OF  CHURCH  HISTORY  89 

righteousness,  is  enslaved  to  evil,  and  can  choose  only 
civil  righteousness.  (5)  Sin.  P.  There  is  no  original 
sin,  inhering  in  the  nature;  it  is  wholly  an  act  of  the 
will,  not  of  the  nature,  of  each  individual;  therefore 
men  are  not  necessarily  sinners,  and  some  have  lived 
^  without  sin.  A.  Sin  is  inherited  and  from  birth  in- 
heres in  human  nature  (original  sin)  and  eventuates 
in  sinful  actions  (actual  sin).  Hence  every  man,  ex- 
cept Christ,  is  necessarily  a  sinner  from  birth.  (6) 
Grace.  P.  It  is  the  natural  endowment  of  the  indi- 
vidual with  will,  intellect,  opportunities,  etc.  A.  It  is 
the  operation  of  God's  truth  and  Spirit  by  which  the 
spiritual  life  is  begun,  continued  and  completed.  With- 
out it  man  can  neither  repent  nor  believe.  Redeeming 
grace  is  irresistible  in  its  operation  on  the  elect.  (7) 
Election.  P.  There  is  no  such  thing  as  unconditional 
election.  A.  Election  is  individual,  eternal,  and  un- 
conditional. (8)  Infant  Baptism.  P.  It  is  a  good 
thing  but  unnecessary  to  salvation  of  infants  because 
they  are  sinless.  A.  It  is  necessary  to  salvation  of 
infants  since  they  are  sinners,  and  baptism  is  the 
church's  only  means  of  regeneration.  Some  of  those 
regenerated  in  baptism  may  and  do  fall  away,  but  the 
elect  can  not. 

Pelagius  was  in  Rome  (409),  with  Celestius  crossed 
to  Carthage  (411)  where  they  were  condemned  by  a 
synod  (412),  thence  they  went  to  Palestine  where  con- 
troversy broke  out  (414)  ;  they  were  supported  by 
synods  in  415  at  Jerusalem  and  Diospolis,  and  at 
first  by  Pope  Zosimus  (417)  ;  after  a  general  council 
of  the  African  churches  and  the  emperor  had  con- 
(lemned  them  (418)  this  pope  concurred.     They  were 


90  A   GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 

condemned  with  Nestorius  by  council  of  Ephesus 
(431).  They  never  formed  a  sect,  but  only  a  theo- 
logical party  and  now  gradually  disappeared. 

Neither  system  won  general  acceptance.  The  Greek 
Church  condemned  Pelagianism,  but  never  accepted 
Augustine's  views.  Before  death  of  Augustine  there 
began  attempts  to  modify  one  system  by  the  other  in 
West,  chiefly  by  a  school  in  Southern  France.  John 
Cassian,  Vincent  of  Lerins  and  others  rejected 
Pelagianism  but  modified  many  of  Augustine's  posi- 
tions. They  were  known  as  Massilians  (from  the 
location  of  their  monastery  at  Massilia,  Marseilles), 
and  later  semi-Pelagians.  They  favored  synergism, 
the  co-working  of  God  and  of  man  in  regeneration  and 
sanctification,  in  essential  harmony  with  later  Armin- 
ians.  The  discussion  continued  for  a  century  (semi- 
Pelagianism  was  approved  by  synods  at  Aries  472  and 
Lyons  475),  but  finally  resulted  in  a  victory  for 
moderate  Augustinianism  at  the  Synod  of  Orange  529; 
but  the  Catholic  church  still  continues  to  be  divided  on 
the  subject. 

V.    Christian  Life — Morals,  Discipline, 

MONASTICISM 
K.  61  and  44;  A.  137-143;  S.  18-47;  68-73 
There  w^as  of  course  development  during  the  period 
and  variations  from  one  locality  to  another.  There 
was  improvement  in  some  directions,  decline  in  others. 
In  general  we  may  say  that  the  condition  of  society 
was  improved  by  the  church,  while  the  life  of  the 
church  was  corrupted  by  the  world. 

I.  Improvements.     More  humane  laws  in  the  em- 


OF   CHURCH   HISTORY  91 

pire,  abolition  of  crucifixion,  of  gladiatorial  games  404 
(Telemachus),  establishment  of  educational  and  chari- 
table institutions  (asylums,  hospitals,  etc.),  improve- 
ment of  marriage  and  divorce  laws,  elevation  of  women 
and  children,  struggle  against  sexual  immorality,  in- 
fanticide made  capital  offense  374,  amelioration  of 
slavery,  and  encouragement  of  manumission,  care  for 
the  poor,  widows,  orphans  and  sick. 

2.  Points  of  Decline.  Frightful  division  and 
strife,  brutal  polemics,  persecution  of  heathen  and 
Christian  heretics  by  church  and  state,  decline  in  per- 
sonal morals,  superstition,  rise  of  belief  in  purgatory 
(5th  century)  and  masses  for  the  dead;  luxury  and 
pomp,  interference  of  the  Byzantine  court  in  religious 
affairs. 

3.  Discipline  against  heresy  was  strict  and  was 
executed  by  the  State,  while  as  to  morals  it  was  relax- 
ing. Confession  of  secret  sins  privately  to  a  specially 
appointed  priest  began  to  be  recommended  and  intro- 
duced here  and  there,  but  as  yet  was  not  required  as  a 
prerequisite  to  communion.  The  church  imposed  cer- 
tain penalties  in  form  of  fasts,  prayers,  alms,  etc., 
for  each  offense.  There  was  zeal  for  purity  of  doctrine 
and  indifference  to  purity  of  life,  "hatred  for  heresy  and 
laxity  of  morals;"  the  church  being  rapidly  paganized. 

4.  MoNASTiciSM  did  not  originate  from  Chris- 
tianity; found  in  India  among  Brahmans  and 
Buddhists;  Essenes  and  Therapeutse  among  Jews  of 
Palestine  and  Egypt.  Christian  monasticism,  prob- 
ably influenced  by  this  earlier  monasticism,  did  not 
appear  until  3d  century  when  evangelical  Christianity 
was  greatly  decayed.     It  was  supported  by  reference 


92  A  GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 

to  Elijah,  Elisha  and  John  the  Baptist.  It  rose  in 
Egypt,  where  conditions  of  weather,  temperament 
and  reh'gious  ideas  were  favorable ;  spread  thence  to  the 
whole  Christian  world.  The  motives  were  various — 
flight  from  corrupt  and  corrupting  world,  from  oppres- 
sive church,  from  temptations,  from  work  and  duties 
of  society — in  a  word  the  saving  of  one's  own  soul, 
which  was  paramount  and  exclusive. 

Before  end  of  second  century  ascetics,  men  and 
women,  renounced  the  enjoyment  of  flesh,  wine  and 
marriage,  but  did  not  withdraw  from  ordinary  duties. 
The  further  development  of  this  tendency  resulted  in 
monasticism.  It  took  three  forms,  each  growing  out 
of  its  predecessor — Anchorite  or  Hermit^  Cenobite  and 
Order.  The  first,  largely  confined  to  East,  was  ne  plus 
ultra  of  personal  freedom.  Other  forms  had  carefully 
regulated  communal  life — simple,  active,  religious. 
Monasticism  was  regarded  as  the  highest,  the  religious 
life — monks  were  called  the  religions,  or  the  regular 
clergy,  in  distinction  from  the  secular  (ordinary) 
clergy.  Monks  were  at  first  laymen,  but  later  were 
usually  ordained;  monasteries  became  seminaries  out 
of  which  came  priests,  bishops,  missionaries,  popes. 
At  first  ordinary  costume  was  worn,  but  later  tonsure 
and  distinctive  dress  adopted.  Monasteries  produced 
both  good  and  evil,  (a)  Good.  They  contained  the 
best  Christians,  produced  missionaries,  scholars;  were 
schools,  publishing  houses,  hospitals,  hospices,  refuges 
from  sin  and  danger;  taught  agriculture,  architecture, 
labor,  were  nearly  always  on  side  of  orthodoxy,  (b) 
Evil — withdrew  the  best  people  from  society  and  mar- 
riage, created  double  standard  of  morality  and  exalted 


OF   CHURCH   HISTORY  93 

a  false  standard,  made  salvation  depend  on  asceticism, 
fostered  superstition,  often  became  frightfully  corrupt. 
Monks  took  three  vows:  personal  poverty  (communal 
property  allowed),  chastity  (including  renunciation  of 
marriage),  and  obedience  to  superiors;  vows  irrevoca- 
ble; at  first  free,  monks  were  gradually  brought  under 
episcopal  jurisdiction.  Later  (loth  century  on)  most 
w^ere  gradually  removed  from  jurisdiction  of  bishops  to 
that  of  pope. 

(i)  Anchorites  appeared  before  end  of  3d  century. 
The  prototypes,  and  most  celebrated  were  Paul  of 
Thebes  and  Anthony  in  Egypt,  Hilarius  in  Palestine 
and  Simon  the  Stylite  in  Syria.  Paul  (probably 
legendary)  is  said  to  have  fled  to  the  desert  in  250  dur- 
ing Decian  persecution,  where  he  remained  till  death 
in  340,  fed  by  ravens;  Anthony,  the  real  founder  of 
anchoritism,  sold  his  property  and  withdrew  to  desert 
c.  270,  became  enormously  influential,  d.  356;  ''Life" 
written  by  Athanasius;  Hilarius,  also  an  Egyptian  in- 
troduced it  into  regions  of  Gaza,  Sicily,  Dalmatia  and 
Cyprus ;  tens  of  thousands  of  solitary  men  on  the  moun- 
tains and  deserts  of  these  torrid  lands;  Simon  (Stylite) 
mounted  a  pillar  40  miles  east  of  Antioch  423  where 
he  died  459 ;  other  stylites. 

(2)  The  Cenobite  or  community  form  was  estab- 
lished by  Pachomius  on  the  island  of  Tabennae  in  the 
Nile  in  325 ;  this  form  quickly  superseded  the  anchorite 
and  was  soon  extended  to  women.  He  became  abbot 
or  archimandrite,  and  wrote  first  monastic  rule.  This 
form  was  recommended  by  most  of  the  fathers,  was 
carried  by  Ephraim  to  Mesopotamia,  by  Eustathius  to 
Armenia  and  Paphlagonia,  by  Basil  to  Pontus  and 


94  A   GUIDE   TO  THE   STUDY 

Cappadocia.  The  latter  wrote  an  improved  rule  which 
is  still  in  use  in  East. 

Athanasius  introduced  monasticism  into  Rome 
(340)  whence  it  spread  over  Western  world;  Martin 
of  Tours  carried  it  into  Gaul.  Here  it  was  less  fanati- 
cal, better  organized  and  more  useful  than  in  East. 
The  appeal  to  earnest  souls  was  overwhelming. 

(3)  The  first  Order,  the  Benedictine,  was  founded 
by  Benedict  of  Nursia  (480-543)  at  Monte  Cassino 
in  529.  His  rule  {Henderson  274-314)  superseded  all 
former  rules  in  West,  and  was  the  model  of  all  later 
ones.  Under  this  rule  the  church  reared  its  scholars, 
authors,  missionaries,  saints,  artists,  bishops,  cardinals, 
popes  for  centuries.  The  cultivation  of  learning  was 
introduced  by  Cassiodorus  528  on.  The  opponents  of 
monasticism  were  few — Jovinian,  Helvidius,  Vigil- 
antius,  Aerius. 

VI.     Literature  and  Authors 

K.  Sees.  47,  48;  S.  161-180. 

During  this  period  Christianity  completely  con- 
quered the  literary  world,  Pagan  literature  ceased. 
Christian  literature  was  chiefly  in  Greek  and  Latin,  but 
some  was  in  Syriac,  Armenian,  Coptic  and  Gothic. 
It  is  entirely  theological,  for  the  most  part  polemical, 
often  bitter  and  brutal;  but  there  is  profound  theo- 
logical speculation,  exegetical  studies,  sermons,  history, 
lives  of  saints  for  popular  reading.  The  three  main 
schools  or  types  were  the  Alexandrian,  the  Antiochian 
and  the  Western.  The  output  of  literature  was  enor- 
mous. 


OF  CHURCH   HISTORY  95 

The  period  was  rich  in  able  men,  the  most  important 
were  the  following :       ^, 

1.  Greek  Fathers,  Eusebius  of  Caesarea  (c.  270- 
340),  Athanasius  (c.  293-373),  Basil  the  Great  (c.' 
330-379),  Gregory  Nazianzen  (c.  329-390),  Gregory 
of  Nyssa,  brother  of  Basil  (d.  394),  ApoUinaris  of 
Laodicea  (d.  390),  Didymus  the  Blind  (d.  395),  John 
Chrysostom  (d.  407),  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia  (d. 
429),  Theodoret  (d.  457),  Epiphanius  (d.  403),  Cyril 
of  Alexandria  (d.  444). 

2.  Latin  Fathers.  Hilarv  of  Poitiers  (d.  366), 
Martin  of  Tours  (d.  400),  Ambrose  of  Milan  (340- 
397),  Jefome  (d.  420),  Augustine  (d.  430),  John 
Cassian  (d.  432),  Leo  I  the  Great  (d.  461),  Gregory 
I  the  Great  (540-604). 


BOOK  III 


BOOK  HI 

MIDDLE  AGES,  c.  600  TO  c.  15 17 

Introduction 

In  general  characteristics  this  period  is  sharply  dis- 
tinguished from  the  preceding  and  following.  The 
political  separation  of  the  East  from  the  West  was 
followed  by  increasing  religious  estrangement,  finally 
issuing  in  division  between  Eastern  and  Western 
churches  in  the  nth  century. 

(i)  In  East.  Mohammedanism  rose  as  a  mighty 
religious  and  political  power  early  in  7th  century, 
quickly  rent  Egypt,  N.  Africa,  Syria,  Asia  Minor  and 
most  of  Spain  from  the  empire  and  subdued  Persia. 
The  Empire  continued  to  shrink  and  decay  until  it  was 
finally  extinguished  by  the  Turks  with  the  capture  of 
Constantinople  1453.  The  Eastern  church,  without 
strong  centralized  government,  subservient  to  civil 
power,  oppressed  by  Mohammedanism,  fell  into  com- 
plete stagnation.  All  intellectual  life  ceased,  and  its 
only  missionary  activity  was  the  conversion  of  the 
Russians  and  other  Slavs  in  9th  and  loth  centuries. 

(2)  In  West.  Settled  kingly  governments  gradu- 
ally rose  on  the  ruins  of  the  Empire.  Mohammedanism 
subdued  N.  Africa,  most  of  Spain  and  invaded  Gaul, 
conquered  islands  of  the  W.  Mediterranean  and  harried 
Italy  and   Greece;  a  deluge  of  northern  barbarians 

99 


loo  A   GUIDE   TO   THE   STUDY 

(Northmen)  overran  most  of  England,  parts  of  Ger- 
many, France  and  Italy,  were  converted  and  civilized. 
The  Empire  was  revived  in  West  by  Charlemagne  and 
the  Franks  (800),  and  during  much  of  the  middle 
ages  its  power  was  great  in  W.  Europe,  without,  how- 
ever, interfering  seriously  with  the  existence  and  de- 
velopment of  national  governments.  Feudalism  as  a 
social,  economic  and  political  system  preserved  a  meas- 
ure of  local  independence,  while  the  crusades  unified 
the  people  and  elevated  royalty  and  the  papacy.  Reli- 
giously, it  was  a  period  of  great  activity.  All  W. 
Europe,  the  entire  Teutonic  part  of  the  race,  was 
Christianized,  dissent  disappeared,  the  Western  church 
was  unified  c.  8th  century,  and  the  whole  was  brought 
under  pope.  Canon  law  and  ecclesiastical  courts  became 
rivals  of  civil  law  and  civil  courts;  the  Roman  Curia 
the  great  court  of  appeal  for  Christendom.  The  pope 
became  the  mightiest  potentate  of  the  world.  In  the 
long  struggle  for  supremacy  between  the  papacy  and  the 
western  empire,  both  powers  were  greatly  weakened 
toward  end  of  period.  In  the  nth  century  dissent  re- 
appeared in  the  West  and,  despite  the  establishment 
of  the  Inquisition  for  its  suppression,  continued  to 
gather  strength  to  end  of  period.  The  church  un- 
folded remarkable  intellectual  activity  (scholasticism), 
a  rich  monastic  life,  produced  wonderful  architectural 
and  artistic  beauties.  Universities  rose  and  soon  domi- 
nated the  intellectual  life  of  the  world;  monks  were  the 
professors,  artists  and  authors  of  the  time. 

Differences  in  development  make  it  necessary  to  treat 
eastern  and  western  Christianity  separately. 


OF  CHURCH  HISTORY  loi 


FIRST  DIVISION,  c.  600  TO  c.  850 

A  period  of  general  decline  and  terrible  disasters 
for  the  civilized  world.  In  the  southeast  the  Moham- 
medan Arabs,  in  the  northeast  the  heathen  Slavs  and 
others,  bring  frightful  destruction  and  suffering,  while 
in  west  there  is  general  decline. 

A.    EASTERN  CHRISTIANITY 

I.     Orthodox  Church  in  the  Empire 

There  was  continuous  and  desperate  struggle  with 
Slavs  and  other  barbarous  tribes  along  the  Danube; 
the  Persians,  at  war  with  the  Empire  for  centuries, 
began  a  determined  invasion  c.  610.  Antioch  and 
Damascus  fell  613,  Cilicia  and  Tarsus  were  occu- 
pied; in  614,  Jerusalem  captured,  sacked  and  burned, 
patriarch  and  holy  cross  carried  off  to  Persia;  619 
Egypt  was  invaded  and  Alexandria  captured,  Africa 
wasted  to  Carthage,  620  Chalcedon;  about  same  time 
Avars  by  land  and  Persians  by  sea,  attacked  Constan- 
tinople; most  of  Asia  Minor  and  Armenia  in  hands 
of  Persians.  Heraclius  began  vigorous  resistance  622, 
but  at  first  with  little  success;  Persians  and  Balkan 
tribes  again  besiege  Constantinople  626 ;  tide  now  turns, 
Persians  are  defeated,  expelled  from  territoi-y  of  Em- 
pire, holy  cross  recovered  and  restored  to  Jerusalem 
(627-29),  thus  ending  26  years  of  war.    Both  Persians 


102  A   GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 

and  Empire,  greatly  weakened  by  long  struggle,  offered 
little  resistance  to  Saracens  (Mohammedan  Arabs) 
who  began  their  wonderful  expansion  (633).  Attacked 
Empire  in  Syria  634.  Captured  Damascus  and  Emesa 
635,  all  N.  Syria  including  Antioch  637,  Jerusalem  638, 
Caesarea  the  last  Syrian  city  640;  entered  Egypt  639 
and  completed  conquest  with  capture  of  Alexandria 
641.  Conquest  of  Persia  began  about  636  and  was 
completed  by  650. 

Confusion  and  civil  war  among  the  Arabs  stopped 
advance  for  some  years,  but  in  660  Damascus  became 
their  capital  and  advance  began  again.  Carthage  cap- 
tured 697  and  all  N.  Africa  subdued  by  709,  they 
crossed  into  Spain  711,  rapidly  overthrew  W.  Gothic 
Empire  and  in  8  years  controlled  most  of  the  peninsula ; 
720  invaded  Gaul,  but  were  defeated  and  finally  stopped 
by  the  Frank,  Charles  Martel,  at  Tours  732.  Eastward 
they  had  penetrated  to  the  Indus  and  the  borders  of 
China.  They  formed  a  fleet  on  the  Mediterranean,  be- 
sieged Constantinople  (669-677),  (driven  off  by 
"Greek  fire")  and  again  716,  and  by  750  had  subju- 
gated Sardinia,  Corsica  and  Balearic  Isles  and  by  end 
of  period  most  islands  of  Mediterranean  in  their  hands. 
All  the  above  permanently  rent  from  the  Empire. 

The  Omaiyads  (660-750)  were  succeeded  by 
Abbasides  and  the  unified  government  began  to  break 
up  into  smaller  Mohammedan  powers.  Independent 
Caliphate  founded  at  Cordova  755 ;  seat  of  eastern 
Caliphate  removed  to  Bagdad  (c.  765-1258)  which 
was  made  one  of  the  most  splendid  and  important 
cities  in  the  world  (cf.  Arabian  Nights).  Haroun-al- 
Raschid  (768-809)  invaded  Greek  empire  nine  times 


OF   CHURCH   HISTORY  103 

wasting  its  Asiatic  provinces.  Toward  end  of  period 
E.  Caliphate  fell  into  confusion  and  weakness  which 
lasted  two  centuries;  many  sects,  parties  and  inde- 
pendent governments  arose. 

Wherever  Mohammedan  power  extended  they  com- 
pelled all  except  Jews  and  Christians  to  become  Mo- 
hammedans in  religion. 

Early  in  7th  century  Slavs  had  transformed  their 
raids  into  an  ordered  policy  of  occupation  and  settle- 
ment in  the  Balkan  peninsula  and  all  N.  portion  had 
been  thus  appropriated  during  the  long  struggle  of  the 
empire  with  Persians  and  Saracens.  Toward  end  of 
the  century  another  terrible  people  of  Finnish  stock, 
the  Bulgars,  crossed  the  lower  Danube,  conquered  and 
unified  the  Slavs  and  organized  a  new  and  more  dan- 
gerous state  (679  onward). 

Thirty-five  years  of  anarchy  and  frightful  disorder 
was  brought  to  an  end  by  accession  of  Leo  HI  (the 
Isaurian)  in  717,  who  beat  off  an  enormous  Saracen 
force  (600  ships,  100,000  soldiers),  which  was  be- 
sieging Constantinople  (717-18),  last  Saracen  attempt 
on  Constantinople;  drove  them  out  of  Asia  Minor  by 
739.  With  Leo  the  period  of  imperial  decay  comes 
to  an  end;  he  instituted  many  reforms  and  for  the 
next  300  years  the  empire  is  able  to  beat  off  the  raids 
of  Saracens  in  Asia  Minor  and  the  Mediterranean, 
and  of  the  Bulgars  in  the  Balkans  without  serious 
losses.  But  in  the  west  Ravenna  and  the  other  posses- 
sions of  central  Italy  were  lost  to  the  Lombards  (750) 
and  the  Pope,  angered  by  the  iconoclastic  controversy, 
transferred  his  allegiance  to  the  Franks,  while  Crete 
(c.  820)  and  Sicily  (827-878)  were  lost  to  the  Moham- 


I04  A   GUIDE   TO  THE   STUDY 

medans,  and  the  possessions  of  southern  Italy  were 
harried  by  Saracens  and  Lombards. 

11.     Mohammedanism 

N.  i.  431-4;  S.  iv.  p 1 43 -20 1 ;  K.  Sec.  65,  81;  H.  i.  522-37;  A.  ii. 
P191-206. 

Islam  founded  by  Mohammed  (571-632)  in  Mecca, 
is  a  fatalistic  monotheism,  revealed  by  Mohammed  as 
the  last  and  greatest  prophet  beginning  611,  fleeing 
from  Mecca  (Hegira)  622;  derived  from  Christian, 
Jewish  and  heathen  sources;  Christ  regarded  as 
divinely  endowed  man,  bom  of  a  virgin,  ascended  to 
heaven,  to  return  as  judge.  Its  Bible,  produced  wholly 
by  Mohammed,  is  the  Koran.  Islam  recognizes  good 
and  bad  angels,  a  judgment,  a  sensual  heaven,  permits 
polygamy',  missionary  operations  with  the  sword,  for- 
bids intoxicating  drinks  and  swine's  flesh.  The  princi- 
pal religious  duties  are  spreading  the  religion,  reading 
the  Koran,  five  daily  prayers,  giving  alms,  fasts  in 
month  of  Ramadan  and  pilgrimages  to  Mecca;  no 
priesthood  or  sacrifices.  As  a  political  and  religious 
system  it  was  carried  by  the  sword,  over  the  whole 
eastern  world.  (See  above.)  To  heathen  it  gave  the 
alternative  of  conversion  or  the  sword;  to  Christians 
conversion,  tribute  or  the  sword. 

The  Arabs  were  tolerant  of  Christians,  especially 
Nestorians,  Monophysites  and  other  heretical  parties 
who,  therefore,  preferred  Arabian  to  imperial  rule; 
many  of  the  lower  classes  and  some  of  the  wealthy 
were  converted  to  Islam  especially  in  Egypt;  bishops 
were  made  political  representatives  of  their  churches 
and  given  corresponding  authority ;  Arabs  quickly  ap- 


OF  CHURCH   HISTORY  105 

propriated  the  culture  of  their  subjects  and  became  its 
conservators  for  the  future  especially  in  Syria  and 
Spain.  The  Nestorians  especially  gave  them  a  rich  cul- 
ture in  Mesopotamia  and  Persia.  In  Syria,  Egypt  and 
N.  Africa  the  Christian  population  was  greatly  reduced 
by  the  long  period  of  numerous  and  destructive  wars 
and  pestilences,  and  though  tolerated  never  again 
flourished. 

III.     Internal  History 

I.    Worship — Attempted  Reform — Iconoclasm 
(A.  D.  726-842) 

N.  i.  386-92;   K.   Sec.  66;   H.   i.   507-21;  A.   ii.  p2o6-22;   S.   iv. 

P447-65. 

Image  worship,  both  East  and  West,  had  grown 
beyond  all  bounds  by  8th  century;  now  practically 
fetishism,  idolatry.  Opposition  by  Jews,  Moham- 
medans, Monophysites  and  a  few  orthodox  Christians. 
The  movement  for  reform  was  almost  wholly  among 
laymen,  carried  on  by  the  government  over  the  deter- 
mined opposition  of  clergy,  monks  and  women.  Dur- 
ing the  long  and  bloody  controversy  the  reform  in  the 
East  seemed  twice  to  be  victorious,  but  each  time  was 
defeated  by  a  woman,  i.  First  period  (/26-8i^). 
For  both  political  and  religious  reasons  the  emperor, 
Leo  the  Isaurian,  {726)  forbade  the  worship  of  images, 
and  (730)  ordered  them  removed  from  the  churches 
and  destroyed.  By  the  help  of  the  army  this  decree 
was  executed  but  occasioned  rioting  and  bloodshed. 
Germanus,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  favored 
images  and  was  deposed ;  most  monks  supported  image 
worship  and  were  persecuted.    In  754  a  council  of  338 


io6  A   GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 

bishops  at  Constantinople  under  imperial  pressure  de- 
clared against  images,  and  the  opposition  continued 
till  780,  when  Irene  became  regent  and  virtual  empress 
because  of  the  minority  of  her  son  Constantine  VI. 
She  called  council  in  787  in  Nicea  (II  Nicea,  7th 
ecumenical),  which  restored  images  to  the  churches,  but 
made  distinction  between  adoration  of  images  and  wor- 
ship of  God.  2.  Second  period  (81J-42).  Leo  V 
started  a  second  crusade;  another  council  (816)  in 
Constantinople  condemned  image  worship;  violent 
struggle  continued  till  842,  when  Theodora,  the  regent, 
again  restored  them  to  the  churches.  Since  then  they 
have  held  undisputed  place  in  the  Greek  church,  but 
only  flat  surfaces  are  used,  no  statues. 

The  reform  was  largely  inoperative  in  the  West. 
The  pope  was  the  constant  and  determined  friend  of 
images.  In  731  he  excommunicated  the  iconoclasts. 
The  emperor  responded  by  confiscating  all  his  estates 
in  E.  provinces  and  annexing  the  churches  of  S.  Italy, 
Sicily  and  Illyria  to  Constantinople;  the  controversy 
shook  the  papacy  loose  from  the  empire,  Gregory  III 
(731-41)  being  the  last  pope  to  solicit  confirmation 
from  the  emperor. 

Charlemagne  opposed  image  worship  but  favored 
their  use  pedagogically  as  reminders  of  persons  and 
events,  and  a  synod  of  German  bishops  (Frankfurt 
794)  approved  his  position ;  but  this  caused  no  cessation 
in  their  use  in  worship.  In  fact,  the  development, 
much  freer  in  West  than  in  East,  has  never  been  seri- 
ously disturbed  except  by  the  Reformation.  Since 
this  controversy  both  the  Eastern  and  Western  churches 
have  made  the  distinction  between  the  veneration  (vene- 


OF  CHURCH   HISTORY  107 

ratio  J  proskunesisj  douleia)  of  images  and  the  worship 
(latreia)  given  to  God. 

Teaching  and  preaching  almost  entirely  ceased  in 
this  period  and  worship  became  more  formal  and 
cabalistic.  The  church  produced  a  peculiar  style  of 
architecture,  characterized  by  a  great  dome  surrounded 
by  others,  and  the  lavish  decoration  of  the  whole  struc- 
ture. 

2.     The  Paulicians 

Key  of  Truth;  N.  i.  379-86;  K.  71:1. 

This  sect  is  first  seen  in  S.  E.  Armenia  c.  650; 
origin  of  the  sect  and  its  name  unknown;  variously 
attributed  to  apostle  Paul  and  persistence  of  primitive 
Christianity,  to  Paul  of  Samosata,  to  Paul  a  Mani- 
chaean  of  4th  century;  long  called  themselves  simply 
Christians,  but  finally  accepted  epithet  Paulicians; 
earliest  known  leader  Constantine  began  preaching  c. 
657 ;  great  success  in  Armenia  and  Asia  Minor ;  severe 
persecution  by  the  government  c.  690 ;  division  among 
them  early  in  8th  century  over  apostolic  succession; 
generally  protected  by  iconoclastic  emperors  who  were 
in  substantial  agreement  with  them.  Constantine  V 
(741-75)  transported  many  to  Thrace  where  they 
flourished;  Empress  Theodora  (842)  instituted  terrible 
persecution;  thousands  perished,  rest  fled  to  Saracens 
(at  Tephrike)  with  whom  they  made  war  on  Empire, 
penetrating  as  far  as  Ephesus;  finally  scattered  and 
destroyed  (871),  political  power  broken.  Constantine 
Copronymus  (741-75)  encouraged  large  numbers  to 
settle  in  Thrace.     They  assisted  in  evangelization  of 


io8  A   GUIDE  TO   THE   STUDY 

Bulgarians  in  9th  century,  and  were  numerous  on  lower 
Danube. 

According  to  The  Key  of  Truth  they  had  only  one 
grade  of  ministers,  democratic  church  order,  baptism 
of  believers;  rejected  saint,  relic  and  image  worship, 
purgatory,  hierarchy,  whole  sacramental  system;  held 
a  simple  spiritual  conception  of  Christianity,  but  with 
adoptionist  Christology. 

3.  Learning  largely  decays,  especially  productive 
activity;  John  of  Damascus  (700-54),  the  only  writer 
of  importance  was  epoch-making  for  the  thought  of 
the  Greek  church. 

(B)     Other  Eastern  Churches 

K.  Sec.  72. 

1.  The  Nestorians  of  Persia,  opposing  the  wor- 
ship of  images,  saints  and  relics  and  priestly  celibacy, 
were  favored  by  the  Saracens  and  flourished  till  13th 
century.  Their  seminaries  at  Edessa,  Nisibis  and 
Seleucia  were  famous.  They  produced  an  extensive 
theological  literature  (now  mostly  lost),  and  prosecuted 
mission  work  successfully  in  China  and  India.  With 
the  overthrow  of  the  Caliphs  by  Genghis-Khan  in  12 19 
their  prosperity  ended ;  they  were  almost  exterminated 
and  driven  into  the  mountains  by  Tamerlane,  the 
scourge  of  Asia  (1369-1405).  They  have  not  flour- 
ished since,  but  still  exist. 

2.  The  Monophysite  Churches.  (i)  The 
Armenian  Church  enjoyed  a  good  measure  of  inde- 
pendence and  flourished  accordingly.  In  the  8th  and 
again  in  the  12th  century  it  unfolded  a  rich  literary 
activity.     Some  of  the  Armenians  united  with  the  Ro- 


OF  CHURCH   HISTORY  109 

man  church  in  the  15th  century.  (2)  The  Jacobite 
Church  (a)  In  Syria  it  was  considerably  oppressed  but 
showed  some  Hterary  activity,  (b)  In  Egypt  they 
(Copts)  suffered  terrible  persecution  in  13th  century, 
being  driven  out  of  the  cities  and  reduced  to  miserable 
weakness,  (c)  In  Abyssinia  they  maintained  their  inde- 
pendence, but  also  fell  into  utter  stagnation,  (d)  The 
Maronites  in  Mt.  Lebanon  joined  the  Roman  Catholic 
church  in  1 182.  They  constitute  the  largest  gains  the 
Roman  Catholics  ever  made  in  the  East,  and  now  num- 
ber c.  200,000. 


no  A  GUIDE  TO  THE  STUDY 


B.     WESTERN  CHRISTIANITY 
I.     External  History 

I.  Political.  As  we  have  seen  Christian  govern- 
ment was  completely  overthrown  in  N.  Africa  by  Mo- 
hammedans during  7th  century.  In  711,  they  crossed 
to  Spain  and  by  720  had  subdued  all  but  the  N.  W. 
portion,  where  the  Christians  rallied,  founded  the  king- 
dom of  Asturias  and  began  a  struggle  to  throw  off  the 
Moslem  yoke  which  lasted  till  the  end  of  15th  century. 

The  various  German  tribes  settled  down  in  their  new 
homes,  adopted  the  language,  culture  and  religion  of 
their  subjects  and  began  to  establish  governments,  elec- 
tive monarchies  built  on  the  old  tribal  organization; 
for  a  long  time  crude  and  unstable.  In  England  the 
Heptarchy  continued  till  S2y,  when  all  England  was 
united  under  Egbert,  king  of  Wessex.  On  the  conti- 
nent the  Franks  continued  to  be  the  leaders.  Their 
empire,  which  at  the  beginning  of  the  period  consisted 
of  three  parts  (Austrasia,  Neustria,  Burgundy),  suf- 
fered terrible  disorders,  was  reunited  613,  but  each 
part  retained  a  ruler  or  majordomus  (mayor  of  the 
palace).  Gradually  these  mayors  became  stronger  than 
the  kings.  In  687  Pepin  the  Middle,  of  Austrasia,  con- 
quered the  Mayor  of  Neustria  and  made  himself  Mayor 
of  the  entire  Prankish  empire  to  714.  His  son,  Charles 
Martel  (Mayor  714-41)  reduced  the  rebellious  Prank- 
ish nobles,  fought  the  heathen  Saxons  and  Prisians, 


OF  CHURCH   HISTORY  iii 

defeated  and  turned  back  the  Moslems  at  Tours  (732). 
His  son,  Pepin  the  Short  (Mayor  since  741),  with 
the  approval  of  the  pope,  deposed  the  king  and  was 
himself  elected  by  the  Prankish  nobles  and  anointed 
king  by  Bishop  Boniface  at  Soissons  (751),  thus  be- 
ginning the  Carolingian  (Carlovingian)  line.  In  754 
he  and  his  sons  were  anointed  by  the  pope  himself,  in 
flight  from  the  Lombards,  at  St.  Denis  near  Paris ;  in 
return  the  Franks  became  protectors  of  the  popes  who 
now  renounced  their  allegiance  to  E.  empire,  and  allied 
themselves  with  the  Franks.  This  epoch-making  event 
was  a  determining  factor  in  the  history  of  the  entire 
Middle  Ages.  Since  568  the  Lombards  had  held  most 
of  N.  and  central  Italy  (capital  Pavia),  and  were  striv- 
ing to  incorporate  into  their  kingdom  Rome  and  the 
Patrimonium  Petri,  which  had  been  long  ruled  by  the 
pope  in  semi-independence  of  the  empire.  Pepin  drove 
back  the  Lombards,  confirmed  the  pope's  rule,  enlarged 
his  territory  by  the  gift  of  the  exarchate  and  Penta- 
polis,  thus  (755)  laying  the  foundation  of  the  Papal 
State ;  for  this  service  Pepin  received  the  title  Patricius 
of  Rome.  This  was  the  beginning  of  the  Papal  State 
and  the  first  step  in  the  revival  of  the  Western  Empire. 
Charles  the  Great  (Charlemagne,  768-814),  king  with 
his  brother  Carloman  to  771,  then  alone,  destroyed  the 
Lombard  empire,  773,  confirmed  and  enlarged  the 
Papal  State,  and  himself  took  the  title  King  of  Italy, 
extending  his  authority  over  N.  and  middle  Italy; 
S.  portion  still  remained  under  the  (Byzantine)  Em- 
pire. From  772  to  804,  in  many  wars,  he  subdued  the 
heathen  Saxons  and  forced  them  to  accept  Christianity. 
He  drove  back  the  Mohammedans  into   Spain,   con- 


112  A  GUIDE  TO  THE  STUDY 

quered  the  Avars  and  other  Slavs  along  E.  German 
border,  and  (Christmas  800,  Irene  on  throne  at  Con- 
stantinople) was  crowned  emperor  by  the  pope  at 
Rome,  thus  reviving  the  Roman  Empire  in  the  West. 
This  empire  unified  and  contained  most  of  France  and 
large  sections  of  Germany,  Switzerland,  Italy  and  the 
Netherlands.  It  was  extensive  but  did  not  contain  all 
the  old  Roman  territory  in  the  West  and  none  of  it  in 
the  East.  Under  Louis  the  Pious  (814-40)  the  affairs 
of  this  Empire  fell  into  disorder,  and  after  his  death 
his  sons,  after  bloody  civil  war,  by  the  treaty  of  Verdun 
(843)  divided  it  into  three  parts;  E.  portion  fell  to 
Louis  the  German,  W.  to  Charles  the  Bald,  and  a  cen- 
tral strip  (Friesland,  Lothringia,  Burgundy,  Italy) 
with  the  imperial  title,  to  Lothair. 

By  the  close  of  the  period  the  Saracens  had  subdued 
Sicily  and  were  raiding  S.  Italy,  still  held  largely  by 
the  Greeks. 

The  Scandinavian  countries  were  just  coming  into 
view  in  piratical  raids  upon  the  coasts  of  Germany 
(Vikings). 

2.  Spread  of  Christianity — Missions.  (K.  Sees. 
75-80;  N.  i.  406-22;  H.  i.  556-89;  A.  ii.  P50-124;  M.  ii. 
49-98;  S.  iv.  P27-42;  84-106.)  This  was  a  period  of 
considerable  missionary  activity.  Early  in  the  period 
the  remnants  of  Arianism  were  converted  to  orthodoxy 
or  overthrown  by  the  Mohammedans,  so  that  western 
Christianity  was  almost  completely  unified,  dissent 
from  the  Catholic  Church  practically  disappearing  in 
the  West.  Many  new  missions  were  undertaken ;  new 
methods  were  adopted;  missions  were  originated  and 
supported  by  the  pope,  by  bishops  or  by  princes ;  mis- 


OF   CHURCH   HISTORY  113 

sionaries  began  at  the  top  of  the  social  scale  and  worked 
downward ;  produced  a  strong  and  secure  ecclesiastical 
organization,  but  the  rapid  conversions  were  superficial 
and  often  political.  The  Christianity  propagated  was 
of  course  not  primitive,  but  the  papal  Christianity  of 
the  seventh  and  following  centuries;  in  all  cases  now 
the  new  missions  were  attached  to  the  papal  chair. 

( I )  Anglo-Saxons  had  remained  heathen  since  their 
conquest  of  Britain  (449  on).  Pope  Gregory  sent 
Augustine  to  England  597;  he  Christianized  Kent  and 
founded  Canterbury,  of  which  he  was  made  first  arch- 
bishop. Soon  Essex  received  Christianity  (B.  of  London 
founded  604) ;  62y,  when  king  of  Northumbria  was 
converted,  all  the  kingdoms  were  open  to  Christianity, 
except  Mercia  and  Wessex;  Mercia  subdued  North- 
umbria 633  temporarily  overthrowing  Christianity; 
when  Oswy  recovered  the  throne  he  introduced  Scotch 
Christianity  from  lona  where  he  had  taken  refuge. 
Through  half  a  century  the  work  went  on,  Roman 
missionaries  converting  South  and  Scottish  mission- 
aries North  England.  The  two  types  came  in  conflict, 
and  at  Synod  of  Whitby  (664)  Oswy  king  of  North- 
umbria decided  to  accept  the  Roman  type  and  by  680 
all  England  was  Catholic.  The  Scotch  retired,  and  by 
716  had  themselves  submitted  to  the  Roman  church. 
Most  of  the  Irish  had  submitted  as  early  as  697,  and 
the  Welsh  did  so  later  in  this  period  (c.  777)  thus  com- 
pleting the  Roman  conquest  of  the  British  isles.  The 
only  changes  necessary  to  the  Irish  and  Scotch  were 
the  adoption  of  the  Roman  hierarchy,  Easter  reckon- 
ing and  another  tonsure.  They  continued  priestly  mar- 
riage, the  vernacular  in  worship  and  other  national 


114  A   GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 

customs,  and  were  not  completely  Romanized  until 
after  the  Norman  conquest.  A  second  archbishopric 
was  created  at  York,  and  bishoprics  as  needed.  The 
final  organization  of  parishes  and  bishoprics  was  made 
by  Theodore  of  Tarsus  archbishop  of  Canterbury 
(668-80). 

(2)  Irish  mission  to  the  continent  began  in  590, 
when  Columban  (543-615),  with  twelve  monks, 
settling  in  Burgundy,  founded  the  monastery  of  Lux- 
euil  and  did  extensive  work  in  the  surrounding  region. 
The  Prankish  church  was  not  flourishing.  It  was 
subject  to  the  king  who  appointed  or  confirmed  bishops 
and  called  synods;  it  was  rich,  full  of  superstition, 
wanting  in  sense  of  sin;  Jesus  was  not  a  redeemer, 
but  a  heavenly  king  with  the  cross  as  his  banner. 
Driven  away  (610),  the  Scotch  went  to  Bregenz,  in 
Switzerland,  and  did  successful  work  among  the 
heathen.  Leaving  some  of  his  followers  (Gallus)  be- 
hind to  found  St.  Gall,  Columban  removed  to  N.  Italy 
(612)  and  founded  the  famous  monastery  of  Bobbio. 
The  influence  of  this  Irish  mission  extended  over  wide 
areas  along  the  Rhine,  and  lasted  until  8th  century, 
when  these  monks  joined  the  Benedictines.  This  mis- 
sionary work  was  not  subject  to  Rome,  it  was  an 
earnest  call  to  repentance  and  confession  and  greatly 
blessed  the  Christianity  of  the  whole  region  influenced, 
but  did  not  organize  and  the  work  was  largely  lost. 

(3)  Conversion  of  Germany,  a.  During  yth  cen- 
tury much  mission  work  was  done  by  Scottish  and 
Prankish  missionaries  along  the  western  and  southern 
borders  of  Germany  among  the  Alemanni,  Thuringians 
and  Bavarians;  not  prospering,    b.    Real  progress  be- 


OF  CHURCH  HISTORY  115 

gan  with  the  coming  of  Anglo-Saxon  missionaries,  the 
greatest  of  whom  were  Wilfried,  WilHbrord  and  Boni- 
face. Wilfried,  having  led  to  the  triumph  of  the  Roman 
mission  at  Whitby  (664),  was,  on  his  way  to  Rome, 
wrecked  on  Frisian  coast  (677).  Preached  and  bap- 
tized and  returned  to  England  for  more  missionaries. 
His  pupil  WilHbrord  (658-739),  apostle  of  the  Fris- 
ians, began  work  690  under  protection  of  Pepin  and 
supported  by  Rome.  In  696  he  became  first  archbishop 
of  Utrecht,  and  before  his  death  had  converted  S. 
Frisians,  despite  the  continual  opposition  of  their 
prince.  Before  close  of  period  the  Frisians  were 
Christianized  and  furnished  with  Christian  institutions. 
Boniface  (680-755),  apostle  of  Germany,  began  work 
among  Frisians  716  but  was  soon  driven  back  to  Eng- 
land. He  soon  returned  to  Germany  and  then  addressed 
himself  to  the  revival  and  organization  of  existing 
Christianity  in  subjection  to  Rome  more  than  to  the 
conversion  of  heathen.  In  718  he  visited  the  Pope  and 
was  sent  to  organize  the  church  of  Thuringia;  opposed 
here  he  again  worked  in  E.  Friesland  with  WilHbrord 
719,  and  Hesse.  Ordained  by  the  pope  missionary 
bishop  after  having  sworn  fealty  to  the  pope  in  723, 
he  worked  successfully  in  Hesse  (723-732)  evangeliz- 
ing and  organizing ;  cut  sacred  oak  near  Geismar  724 ; 
work  extended  into  Thuringia.  In  y^2  he  was  named 
as  first  archbishop  in  Germany  and  after  3d  visit  to 
Rome  (738)  he  engaged  in  a  not  very  successful  effort 
to  organize  the  church  of  Bavaria  in  subjection  to 
Rome.  The  sons  of  Charles  Martel  were  favorable  to 
the  ideas  of  Boniface,  who  now  completed  the  organi- 
zation of  Thuringia  and  Hesse.     The  next  ten  years 


ii6  A   GUIDE   TO   THE   STUDY 

he  spent  in  reorganizing  the  Prankish  church  in  con- 
formity and  subjection  to  Rome.  In  742  Austrasia, 
and  in  744  Neustria,  through  synods,  adopted  his  ideas 
and  then  gradually  worked  them  out.  In  755  he  was 
killed  while  on  a  mission  to  the  Frisians,  having  re- 
signed his  ecclesiastical  position  to  go  again  on  a 
mission. 

c.  The  Saxons  were  violent  opponents  of  Christi- 
anity and  maintained  their  independence  and  their 
paganism  till  Charlemagne,  by  several  bloody  wars 
(772-804),  forced  them  to  accept  Christianity  and  the 
Prankish  yoke.  He  organized  the  church  with  eight 
bishoprics,  and  soon  the  Saxons  were  real  Christians. 
In  addition  under  Charles  the  Christianizing  of  Pries- 
land  was  finished;  and  the  Slavic  Wends  in  Bavaria 
and  Carinthia  and  the  Finnish  Avars  were  converted. 

d.  Scandinavia.  This  mission  was  exceedingly  diffi- 
cult and  discouraging  for  many  years.  It  was  begun 
among  the  Danes  in  823  by  Ebo,  archbishop  of  Rheims, 
head  of  a  diplomatic  mission  to  the  Danish  king.  In 
826  the  king  was  baptized,  and  a  young  monk,  Ansgar 
(801-65),  ''apostle  of  Scandinavia,"  began  his  work. 
Driven  out  of  Denmark  (830),  he  labored  in  Sweden 
for  eighteen  months.  In  834  the  archbishopric  of 
Hamburg  was  founded  as  a  basis  for  the  prosecution 
of  this  northern  work.  About  840  the  mission  was 
almost  completely  destroyed  by  heathen  reaction  and 
opposition.  But  about  850  both  Sweden  and  Denmark 
were  again  opened  to  Christian  work  by  favorable 
governments,  and  from  that  time  on  the  mission  flour- 
ished. The  final  work  was  done  by  missionaries  from 
England. 


OF  CHURCH  HISTORY  117 

11.     Ecclesiastical  Constitution — The  Papacy^ 
Hierarchy^  Clergy,  Monks 

K.  Sees.  82-87;  H.  i.  473-501 ;  M.  ii.  84-110;  A.  ii.  P125-162, 
252-92;  S.  iv.  P211-73. 

1.  The  Papacy.  The  influence  of  the  pope  was 
greatly  strengthened  and  extended  during  this  period. 
The  Mohammedan  conquests  ehminated  his  great 
eastern  rivals,  patriarchs  of  Jerusalem,  Antioch  and 
Alexandria;  political  anarchy  in  Italy  made  him  a 
temporal  ruler  there;  missions  extended  his  sway  over 
the  British  Isles,  the  Prankish  empire  and  parts  of 
Scandinavia;  renunciation  of  Byzantine  authority  and 
alliance  with  the  Franks  (755)  greatly  strengthened 
him  in  all  W.  Europe;  Pepin  and  Charlemagne  made 
him  temporal  ruler  of  Central  Italy  (755) ;  the  transfer 
of  the  royal  crown  from  the  Merovingians  to  Pepin  in 
751,  and  the  crowning  of  Charles  as  emperor  in  800 
increased  his  prestige.  In  this  advance  the  popes  were 
compelled  to  oppose  the  princes  in  the  state  and  the 
metropolitans  in  the  church;  latter  struggle  led  to  the 
production  of  the  Donation  of  Constantine  (Hender- 
son, 319-29)  and  the  pseudo-Isidorian  decretals,  c.  850, 
which  gave  the  pope  temporal  rule  over  western  princes 
and  spiritual  rule  over  the  whole  church,  as  against  the 
metropolitans.  These  forged  documents  played  a  very 
important  role  throughout  the  Middle  Ages  (A.  N. 
F.  viii.  599-644). 

2.  The  Hierarchy.  Newly  converted  lands  were 
organized  into  bishoprics  and  parishes  and  provided 
with  clergy  as  rapidly  as  possible.  In  the  Prankish 
empire  the  canonical  election  of  the  upper  clergy  was 
usually   set   aside  by  the   princes   who   appointed   or 


ii8  A   GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 

nominated  them,  and  largely  controlled  them.  Because 
of  their  culture  and  wealth,  they  were  often  more 
important  than  the  secular  nobles,  and  hence  engaged 
much  in  political  affairs,  constituting  one  of  the  estates 
of  the  realm,  with  both  secular  and  spiritual  jurisdic- 
tion. The  lower  clergy  were  largely  appointed  by  the 
bishops,  but  many  churches  and  chapels  had  private 
patrons  who  appointed  the  clergy;  all  churches  had  now 
lost  the  right  to  choose  their  own  ministers. 

3.  Church  (Canon)  Law  was  introduced  into  the 
newly  converted  regions  and  enforced  by  state  and 
church.  The  most  important  additions  to  these  laws 
in  this  period  were  the  pseudo-Isidorean  decretals,  pub- 
lished c.  850. 

4.  Church  and  Monastic  Property  could  not,  ac- 
cording to  the  thought  of  the  time,  be  alienated  when 
once  in  ecclesiastical  possession.  Princes  and  rich  peo- 
ple were  generous  with  their  gifts,  and  all  property  of 
clergymen  and  monks  went  to  the  church  at  their 
death.  As  a  consequence,  the  church  was  growing 
immensely  wealthy.  It  also  collected  tithes,  sometimes 
with  the  help  of  the  civil  power. 

5.  MoNASTiciSM  was  rapidly  extended  into  Eng- 
land, Germany,  and  elsewhere.  Monasteries  for  men 
and  for  women  were  often  schools  and  centers  of 
culture  and  material  development,  sources  of  mission- 
aries, etc.  Many  of  them  were  famous  throughout  the 
Christian  world  for  their  learning  and  missionary  zeal. 
They  were  under  the  jurisdiction  of  their  bishops,  and 
the  monks  received  priestly  consecration  only  when 
they  went  as  missionaries  or  were  otherwise  required 
to   perform   clerical    functions.      Many   of   the   great 


OF  CHURCH   HISTORY  119 

monasteries  were  mighty  forces  for  righteousness  and 
religion,  but  their  power  and  wealth  caused  serious 
decline  in  strictness.  Their  decay  occasioned  a  reform 
in  Germany  by  Benedict  of  Aniane  beginning  about 
817,  who  sought  under  Louis  the  Pious  to  bring  them 
back  to  the  ascetic  ideal. 

HI.     Theology 

K.  Sees.  90-92;  S.  iv.  p5i  1-572. 

The  developments  in  theology  were  unimportant 
and  gathered  around  four  controversies:  i.  Adop- 
tionist  Controversy  (782-99)  rose  in  Spain  in  an  at- 
tempt to  meet  the  monotheistic  criticisms  of  the  Sara- 
cens. It  spread  to  Germany,  where  it  was  vigorously 
opposed  by  the  theologians  of  Charlemagne.  The 
Adoptionists  held  that  only  Christ's  divine  nature  was 
properly  Son  of  God;  His  human  nature  became  Son 
by  adoption. 

2.  Eucharistic  controversy  in  Germany,  831  on. 
Paschasius  Radbert,  in  831,  set  forth  clearly  for  the 
first  time  transubsfantiation  (the  substance  of  the  bread 
and  wine  are  changed  into  the  body  and  blood  of 
Christ)  though  the  term  transuhstantiation  was  not  yet 
used.  He  was  opposed  by  Ratramnus  and  most  writers 
of  the  time  (844  on),  and  was  condemned  by  several 
synods.  This  controversy  will  be  renewed  in  nth 
century  and  decided  in  13th  in  his  favor. 

3.  Predestination  Controversy  (847-68)  was 
started  by  Gottschalk,  a  German  monk,  who  read  Au- 
gustine and  taught  a  double  predestination — to  life, 
and  to  damnation.     He  was  condemned  by  several 


I20  A  GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 

German  synods,  which  asserted  a  moderate  Augustin- 
ianism  as  orthodox  doctrine. 

4.  Filioque  Controversy.  The  term  filioque  (and 
from  the  Son)  as  descriptive  of  the  procession  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  was  inserted  by  the  Spanish  synod  of 
Toledo  into  Constantinopolitan  creed  (589) ;  when  at- 
tacked by  the  East  it  was  approved  by  synod  of  Aachen 
(809)  under  Charlemagne's  direction;  its  truth  but  not 
its  insertion  in  the  creed  at  first  approved  by  pope; 
later  its  insertion  also  approved  by  him. 

IV.     Worship 

K.  Sec.  88;  M.  ii.  1 12-14;  S.  iv.  P397-4S4. 

Naturally,  worship  as  it  was  practiced  in  Rome,  was 
carried  into  lands  newly  converted  by  Roman  mission- 
aries; it  was  also  successfully  introduced  in  most  coun- 
tries already  Christianized.  Only  Milan  and  Spain 
were  able  to  hold  out  against  the  Romanizing  tendency. 
The  Latin  language  and  Roman  liturgy  were  intro- 
duced; preaching  decayed  utterly  (Charlemagne  at- 
tempted to  revive  it) ;  Roman  music  received  some 
German  additions;  the  organ  was  imported  from 
Greece,  757.  Every  new  church  and  monastery  was 
provided  with  relics  of  which  Rome  was  chief  source ; 
saint  worship  was  common,  but  image  worship  not  so 
gross  elsewhere  as  in  Italy  and  East;  pilgrimages  to 
graves  of  Peter,  Martin  of  Tours,  James  of  Compo- 
stella,  were  frequent  and  some  were  made  to  holy  land. 
The  beginning  of  the  church  year  was  changed  to 
Christmas,  while  the  Roman  saints'  days  and  church 
festivals  were  adopted  in  newly  converted  lands,  and 
other  local  ones  were  created.     Heathen  festal  days, 


OF  CHURCH   HISTORY  121 

temples,  saints  and  customs  were  adopted  as  far  as 
possible  so  as  to  conciliate  the  new  converts.  The 
name  of  the  Passover  was  changed  among  Teutons  to 
Easter,  and  brought  into  connection  with  the  spring 
festival  of  the  goddess  Eostra.  Churches  were  built 
on  the  model  of  the  Roman  basilica,  and  were  orna- 
mented with  paintings,  wood  carvings,  altar  pieces,  etc. 
As  long  as  only  a  few  churches  had  the  right  of  bap- 
tism, these  had  baptistries,  clock  and  bell  towers,  apart 
from  the  churches ;  but  when  that  right  was  conferred 
on  all  churches  the  tower  began  to  be  built  on  the 
church,  fonts  to  take  the  place  of  baptistries,  and 
sprinkling  the  place  of  immersion. 

V.     Christian  Life 

K.  Sec.  89;  A.  ii.  153-66;  M.  ii.  1 14-19;  S.  iv.  P371-85. 

In  general,  this  was  a  period  of  ignorance,  super- 
stition and  deep  moral  degradation,  with  improvement 
under  Charlemagne.  The  church,  though  it  was  the 
chief  moral  and  intellectual  force  of  the  time,  could  not 
escape  the  general  decline.  Many  of  the  higher  clergy, 
appointed  for  social  or  political  reasons,  or  as  a  result 
of  simony,  delighted  in  hunting,  war  and  debauchery, 
giving  little  or  no  attention  to  their  proper  duties. 
The  lower  clergy,  as  a  rule  from  the  lower  classes, 
were  ignorant,  superstitious,  and  often  immoral. 
Charlemagne  sought  to  elevate  the  standard  of  effi- 
ciency by  establishing  schools,  introducing  canonical 
life  (communal  life  around  the  bishop)  and  rigid  dis- 
cipline, but  with  little  success.  The  monks  were  the 
saving  salt,  founding  schools,  furnishing  missionaries 
3nd  reformers,  improving  agriculture,  diffusing  learn- 


122  A   GUIDE   TO  THE   STUDY 

ing.  The  church  was  compelled  to  tolerate  slavery 
(had  slaves  itself),  and  such  legal  customs  as  the  oath, 
the  ordeal  (duel,  fire,  water,  cross,  eucharist  and  other 
tests)  by  which  it  was  thought  God  decided  questions. 
Before  end  of  period  private  confession  was  required 
at  least  once  a  year,  and  excommunicated  persons 
suffered  certain  civil  disabilities.  For  venial  sins 
penance  was  required,  and  the  penalties  for  various 
sins  were  so  fixed  that  they  were  written  out  in  peni- 
tential books  (Theodore,  Bede,  others).  The  payment 
of  money  in  place  of  other  forms  of  punishment  (an 
old  German  legal  custom)  gave  rise  to  the  practice  and 
doctrine  of  indulgences,  which  consist  at  this  time  in 
the  payment  of  money  for  the  remission  of  part  or  all 
the  punishment  imposed  by  the  church.  Later  the 
punishment  of  purgatory  imposed  by  God  was  thought 
to  be  shortened  or  abolished  by  the  church  on  payment 
of  money  for  these  indulgences. 

VI.     Literature  and  Theological  Science 

K.  Sec.  go;  A.  ii.  P167-88. 

The  beginnings  of  theological  literature  in  the  ver- 
nacular, seen  among  the  Goths  in  the  last  period,  died 
away  in  this  and  only  Latin  was  used.  Submission 
to  the  Roman  See  brought  the  Teutons  in  contact  with 
the  earlier  Christian  and  classic  culture.  Some  knowl- 
edge of  Greek  lingered  here  and  there.  Literature, 
produced  wholly  by  monks,  was  mostly  historical  and 
practical,  and  showed  little  originality,  being  largely 
compilations  from  the  fathers.  Literary  activity  passed 
almost  entirely  from  Latins  to  Teutons,  Gregory  the 
Great  being  the  last  Roman  writer  of  note^    Th^  mp§t 


OF  CHURCH   HISTORY  123 

notable  writers  were  Isidore,  a  Visigoth  of  Seville, 
d.  636  ("Sentences"  and  "Ecclesiastical  Offices") ; 
Venerable  Bede,  an  Anglo-Saxon  monk  of  Jarrow,  d. 
y^^  (Eccl.  Hist,  of  Eng.,  others) ;  Alcuin,  an  Anglo- 
Saxon,  d.  804,  assistant  of  Charlemagne  (compilations, 
letters) ;  Paulus  Diaconus,  3.  Lombard  at  court  of 
Charlemagne,  d.  795  (His.  of  Lombards) ;  Rabanus 
Mauriis  (d.  856),  of  Roman  blood,  but  long  German- 
ized (commentaries,  homilies,  etc.);  Paschashis  Rad- 
bert  d.  865;  John  Scotus  Erigena,  Irish  mystical 
philosopher,  d.  c.  877. 


124  A   GUIDE   TO   THE    STUDY 


SECOND  PERIOD,  850  TO  1050 

A.     EASTERN  CHRISTIANITY 

This  period,  so  dark  and  discouraging  in  the  West, 
was  marked  by  revival  and  rapid  enlargement  in  the 
East.  The  empire  recovered  much  of  its  lost  territory 
from  the  Saracens,  the  Slavs  south  of  the  Danube 
were  subdued,  culture  was  preserved  and  fostered,  liter- 
ature and  trade  flourished,  extensive  and  successful 
mission  work  was  prosecuted  among  the  peoples 
(chiefly  Slavs)  N.  of  the  Danube  and  around  the 
Black  Sea.  The  Iconoclastic  controversy  provoked  a 
religious  revival  which  manifested  itself  in  many  ways 
and  lasted  for  2>^  centuries. 

I.     External  History 

I.  Political  history — Macedonian  dynasty  (867- 
1057)  restores  much  of  ancient  glory. 

After  850  more  than  a  century  passed  without 
serious  wars,  but  Sicily  was  finally  lost  to  Saracens 
878 ;  the  Slavs  on  the  lower  Danube  were  settling  down 
and  accepting  Christianity;  the  Saracen  empire,  torn 
by  religious  and  political  strife,  was  declining  in  power. 
The  Turks  introduced  as  bodyguard  by  the  Caliph  of 
Bagdad  (c.  840),  gradually  usurped  power  and  in  951 
seized  political  sovereignty,  leaving  the  Caliph  with 
only  spiritual  power;  this  extended  only  over  Persia 
and  lower  Euphrates  Valley.    In  the  West  were  formed 


OF   CHURCH   HISTORY  125 

independent  emirates;  in  N.  Syria  (Aleppo)  and  Meso- 
potamia (Mosul),  and  Fatimite  Caliphate  in  S.  Syria 
and  Egypt  (Cairo)  ;  also  others;  Mohammedan  peoples 
never  again  politically  united.  The  empire  now  (960 
onward)  took  the  aggressive;  recaptured  Crete  (961), 
Cilicia,  N.  Syria  (Aleppo,  Antioch,  etc.),  and  Cyprus 
(962-8),  Edessa  (975);  much  of  Armenia  (a  Chris- 
tian government  which  had  been  independent  for  some 
time)  retaken  I02if.  These  conquests  were  held  to 
end  of  period. 

Like  success  attended  the  imperial  arms  in  Balkan 
Peninsula.  During  the  empire's  weakness  the  Bulgars 
had  conquered  the  other  Slavs,  and  established  a  strong, 
well-ordered  kingdom,  including  Bulgaria,  Servia,  and 
interior  of  Macedonia.  Likewise  the  Slavic  Russian 
tribes  had  been  organized  (862)  by  the  Swede  Rurik, 
ancestor  of  all  the  Tzars,  capital  at  Kief;  they  raided 
coasts  of  Black  Sea,  907  and  941,  and  970  invaded 
Bulgaria  with  60,000  men;  they  were  completely  con- 
quered and  driven  home  by  empire.  About  984  Basil  H 
began  attack  on  the  Bulgarians  which  resulted  in  their 
complete  overthrow  and  incorporation  in  the  empire, 
c.  1018 ;  Danube  as  far  up  as  Belgrade  now  remained 
N.  boundary  of  empire  for  two  centuries. 

2.  Missions.    K.  i.  73;  A.  ii.  235-521;  S.  iv.  32-7. 

The  Christianizing  of  the  remaining  Slavs  and  the 
Bulgars  was  the  work  of  this  period.  As  we  have  seen 
various  heathen  tribes  crowded  into  the  Balkan  Penin- 
sula, overthrowing  the  imperial  power,  occupying  the 
country,  and  destroying  the  Christian  population. 
When  this  territory  was  reconquered  by  Basil  I  (867- 
86),  they  were  rapidly  Christianized,  though  details 


126  A  GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 

of  the  work  are  unknown.  Cyril  (d.  869)  and  Meth- 
odius (d.  885),  "apostles  of  the  Slavs,"  b.  at  Thessa- 
lonica,  Greeks  but  acquainted  with  Slavic  language, 
educated  at  Constantinople,  monks,  the  leading  mis- 
sionaries in  conversion  and  organization  of  various 
Slavic  peoples.  About  850  the  Chazars,  N.  of  Black 
Sea,  evangelized  by  them,  but  overthrown  by  Russians 
1 01 6.  In  864  they  began  work  in  Moravia,  where 
Roman  Cath.  missionaries  had  already  worked;  for 
political  reasons  they  allied  themselves  with  Rome  in 
further  work  in  Moravia  and  Pannonia.  The  Servians 
were  Christianized  from  Constantinople  in  loth  cen- 
tury, in  1043  the  country  threw  off  Byzantine  yoke 
and  the  church  became  independent  of  Constantinople; 
it  so  remains. 

The  Bulgarians  became  acquainted  with  Christianity 
from  Greek  prisoners;  king  Bogoris,  baptized  in  861, 
compelled  his  subjects  to  follow;  for  political  reasons 
joined  Roman  Ch.  867,  but  returned  to  Gk.  Ch.  869. 
Cyril  and  Methodius  invented  Slavic  alphabet,  trans- 
lated parts  of  Bible,  beginning  Slavic  Christian  litera- 
ture which  flourished  in  Bulgaria;  conquered  by 
emperor  Basil  II,  1018;  regained  freedom  1186,  but 
overthrown  by  Tartars  1285  ;  became  Turkish  province 

1391. 

The  Russians  received  Christianity  and  culture  from 
the  Greeks  as  indicated  by  their  names  and  alphabet, 
mission  work  began  c.  866  with  Kiev  as  center;  Prin- 
cess Olga  baptized  955  at  Constantinople;  her  grandson 
Vladimir,  baptized  988  at  Cherson ;  suppressed  heathen- 
ism and  made  Gk.  Christianity  the  official  religion; 
under  this  and  the  next  ruler  many  churches  were 


OF  CHURCH   HISTORY  127 

built,  monasteries  and  schools  founded,  worship  im- 
proved; Metropolitan  of  Kiev  was  primate  of  Russian 
church  under  patriarch  of  Constantinople;  rapid  con- 
version of  people,  less  persecution  than  in  any  other 
land;  church  rapidly  endowed,  enjoying  state  support, 
great  freedom  and  judicial  authority  over  the  clergy 
who  were  exempted  from  all  civil  duties. 

II.     Internal  History 

I.  Schism  between  Eastern  and  Western  Churches. 
K.  Sec.  67;  H.  i.  538-45;  S.  iv.  304-25;  A.  ii.  207f. 

The  increasing  estrangement  of  the  preceding  period 
culminated  in  complete  and  final  separation  in  this. 
The  principal  causes  were  (i)  the  racial  differences 
between  Greek  and  Roman;  (2)  political  division,  due 
to  removal  of  capital  to  Constantinople,  dissolution  of 
the  W.  empire  and  its  revival  as  a  rival  empire  in  West 
under  Charlemagne  (800)  ;  (3)  rivalry  between 
patriarchs  of  Constantinople  and  popes  of  Rome  and 
especially  the  struggle  over  Photius;  in  857  Ignatius, 
patriarch  of  Constantinople,  was  deposed  by  the  gov- 
ernment and  Photius,  a  learned  layman  of  noble  birth, 
at  that  time  Sec.  of  State,  was  appointed ;  in  863  pope 
excommunicated  Photius  and  in  867  a  synod  at  Con- 
stantinople deposed  the  pope;  this  breach  was  never 
finally  healed;  (4)  E.  Church  declares  Holy  Spirit 
proceeds  from  the  Father  (only)  through  the  Son; 
W.  Church  afBrms  that  he  proceeds  from  the  Father 
and  the  Son;  filioque  introduced  into  Nicene  Creed  at 
synod  of  Toledo  589  and  gradually  accepted  through- 
out West;  was  very  offensive  to  East;  (5)  East  uses 
leavened.  West  unleavened  bread  in  eucharist;    (6) 


128  A   GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 

other  differences — E.  uses  trine  immersion  only,  W. 
any  mode;  E.  has  married  clergy  (except  bishops),  W. 
unmarried;  E.  uses  only  flat  surfaces  in  image  wor- 
ship, W.  employs  statuar>\ 

July  1 6,  1054  papal  legates  laid  decree  excommuni- 
cating Greek  Church  on  altar  of  St.  Sophia;  the  Greeks 
then  excommunicated  the  Roman  Ch.  and  the  schism 
was  complete.  Several  ineffectual  attempts  at  reunion, 
for  political  reasons,  notably  at  Councils  of  Lyons 
(1274)  and  Florence  (1439),  were  followed  by  com- 
plete cessation  of  such  efforts  after  fall  of  Constan- 
tinople (1453).  The  two  churches  have  remained  hos- 
tile to  the  present. 

2.  Heretical  bodies.  N.  i.  543-5;  K.  i.  Sec.  71-4; 
S.  iv.  131-3. 

Under  the  Mohammedan  Arabs  the  Nestorians  of 
Mesopotamia  and  Persia,  the  Jacobites  of  Syria  and 
Egypt  fared  somewhat  better  than  orthodox  Chris- 
tians; treatment  varied  with  the  disposition  of  the 
rulers,  but  they  were  always  oppressed;  Christians 
paid  all  the  taxes,  and  were  occasionally  savagely  per- 
secuted ;  churches  despoiled  of  their  treasures,  buildings 
sometimes  confiscated  or  destroyed. 

The  Paulicians  flourished  in  Thrace  in  this  period, 
at  one  time  holding  Philippopolis  and  many  villages 
and  castles  in  Macedonia;  persuaded  by  Emperor 
Alexius  Comnenus  (1081-1118)  to  unite  with  orthodox 
church  in  large  numbers  they  lost  their  power  and 
eventually  disappeared. 

The  Bogomiles  (friends  of  God)  seem  to  have  been 
derived  from  Paulicians.  They  appear  c.  middle  of 
loth  century,  were  dualistic,  hostile  to  the  church  and 


OF  CHURCH  HISTORY  129 

its  practices,  rejected  baptism  and  the  supper,  were 
strict,  even  ascetic  in  morals,  organized  independent 
churches  or  worked  in  the  Cath.  Ch.  They  were  wide- 
spread in  Bulgaria,  Constantinople  and  Asia  Minor, 
continuing  to  14th  century. 

3.  There  was  considerable  learning  with  Constan- 
tinople as  center ;  devoted  chiefly  to  conservation  rather 
than  production.     S,  iv.  135-7;  142-52- 


I30  A   GUIDE   TO   THE   STUDY 


B.     WESTERN  CHRISTIANITY 
I.     External  History 

I.  Political  History.  It  was  a  period  of  terrible 
disorders — robbery,  bloodshed,  almost  anarchy.  Europe 
was  beset  on  the  southeast  by  the  Mohammedans,  who 
laid  waste  the  Mediterranean  coasts;  on  the  east  by 
hordes  of  Slavs  (Hungarians,  Wends,  Moravians,  Bo- 
hemians), who  repeatedly  wasted  Germany;  penetrated 
even  to  heart  of  France ;  on  west  and  north  by  heathen 
Northmen  (Danes,  Swedes  and  Norwegians),  who 
wasted  the  coasts,  penetrated  Germany  and  France  by 
the  rivers,  appropriated  a  large  section  of  W.  France 
(Normandy),  passed  into  the  Mediterranean  and 
formed  a  kingdom  in  S.  Italy,  invaded  Greece ;  harried 
the  British  Isles  for  two  centuries  and  finally  completely 
overthrew  the  existing  government  of  England;  pene- 
trated far  into  Russia  and  southward  to  Black  Sea, 

(i)  Germany.  The  treaty  of  Verdin  (843)  ap- 
portioned the  realm  of  Louis  the  Pious  among  his 
three  sons,  the  central  strip  having  the  imperial  dignity ; 
in  870  this  strip  was  divided  between  Germany  and 
France,  and  the  imperial  dignity  went  to  Germany. 

Much  of  this  strip  has  remained  debatable  ground 
to  the  present.  In  875  Charles  the  Bald  of  France 
obtained  the  title  of  emperor,  but  in  881  Charles  the 
Fat,  of  Germany,  recovered  it  for  Germany;  hence- 


OF   CHURCH   HISTORY  131 

forth  the  imperial  dignity  belonged  to  the  German 
king,  but  imperial  authority  was  actually  exercised 
only  when  he  was  able  to  assert  his  authority  as  king 
of  Italy  and  secure  the  papal  crowning  and  anointing 
at  Rome  as  emperor.  Hence  frequently  there  was  no 
emperor.  While  the  king  of  Germany  struggled  to 
enforce  his  authority  in  Italy,  the  imperial  coronation 
was  nearly  always  obtained  from  the  pope  by  force, 
and  frequently  caused  bloodshed.  From  899  to  962 
Germans  exercised  no  authority  in  Italy,  and  Italian 
nobles  fought  for  the  imperial  crown.  Germany  was 
wasted  by  Slavs  on  the  east,  and  Northmen  on  the  west, 
until  under  Louis  the  Child  the  German  kingdom 
seemed  on  the  point  of  dissolution  into  great  inde- 
pendent duchies  ( Saxony,  Franconia,  Bavaria,  Swabia, 
Lothringia).  Henry  I  (The  Fowler)  stopped  the  ad- 
vance of  the  Slavs  and  Northmen,  began  to  reduce  the 
great  nobles  to  submission,  and  to  bring  order  and 
safety  in  the  land.  Otto  I  completely  defeated  and 
subjugated  the  Slavs  in  Germany,  reduced  all  the 
great  nobles  to  submission,  restored  German  authority 
in  Italy,  and  in  962  revived  the  empire  ("Holy  Roman 
Empire  of  the  German  Nation")  by  having  himself 
crowned  emperor  at  Rome.  He  elevated  German 
bishops  and  archbishops  into  secular  princes  to  offset 
the  power  of  the  great  nobles.  They  held  high  place  in 
government,  but  were  appointed  by  and  were  subject 
to  the  king.  After  the  death  of  Otto  I  the  empire  de- 
cayed until  Henry  III  brought  it  again  to  a  high  point 
of  glory  and  power. 

(2)    France.    The  Carlovingians  reigned  from  843 
to  987.     After  the  death  of  Charles  the  Fat  (887) 


132  A  GUIDE  TO  THE  STUDY 

there  was  political  anarchy  for  a  century.     Sometimes 
six  or  seven  men  were  contending  for  the  crown. 

France  did  not  suffer  seriously  from  Slavs,  but 
internal  disorders  were  greater  than  in  Germany; 
Northmen  settled  on  the  Seine  and  ravaged  the  country 
till  they  were  recognized  as  the  lawful  vassals  of  the 
king  in  911  (Normandy).  Here  they  soon  adopted 
the  French  language  and  the  Christian  religion.  In 
987  Hugo  Capet  became  the  founder  of  a  new  dynasty, 
which  lasted  till  1328,  but  the  royal  authority  was 
slight  and  the  great  nobles  were  long  practically  inde- 
pendent, often  more  powerful  than  the  king,  and  the 
central  government  was  only  a  name. 

(3)  England.  The  attacks  of  the  Danes  on  Eng- 
land had  begun  before  the  middle  of  the  ninth  century. 
They  were  still  ruthless  heathen.  Alfred  the  Great 
succeeded  in  partially  stemming  the  tide,  but  was  com- 
pelled to  leave  a  large  part  of  N.  England  to  them. 
They  settled  the  land  and  were  gradually  Christianized, 
but  toward  end  of  loth  century  invasions  began  again. 
In  1002  the  Danes  were  massacred  (Danish  Vespers) 
in  large  numbers;  this  caused  the  complete  reduction 
of  England  by  the  Danish  king  Canute  and  his  son 
(1016-1042),  who  united  England  to  the  crown  of 
Denmark.  He  was  succeeded  by  Edward  the  Con- 
fessor, the  last  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  kings.  , 

(4)  Spain.  The  splendid  Caliphate  of  Cordova 
lasted  from  755  to  1031,  when  it  broke  up  into  many 
smaller  Mohammedan  states.  The  Christians  in  the 
northwest  continued  to  gain  ground;  kingdom  of 
Asturias  became  kingdom  of  Leon;  kingdom  of  Na- 
varre organized  before  900,  Castile  in  1033,  Aragon 


OF  CHURCH   HISTORY  133 

1035.  The  struggle  between  the  two  faiths  continued 
through  the  period,  with  the  Christians  gradually 
regaining  their  lost  territory. 

2.  The  Papacy.  (K.  Sec.  96:1-5;  N.  i.  494-502; 
A.  ii.  185-9;  S.  iv.  59-66).  The  earlier.  Carlovingians 
exerted  a  very  decided  influence  upon  the  election  and 
policy  of  the  popes;  but  as  the  line  decayed  the  popes 
struggled  for  independence  and  increased  influence  in 
church  and  state.  This  culminated  in  Nicholas  I  (858- 
6y),  one  of  the  most  powerful  of  the  popes;  he  and  his 
next  two  successors  sought  to  extend  their  authority 
over  all  opponents  in  church  and  state  and  to  destroy 
the  power  and  rights  of  metropolitans  and  kings.  The 
papacy  then  fell  into  utter  decay  for  almost  a  century. 
It  was  the  football  of  Italian  parties,  and  was  generally 
filled  by  unworthy  men.  From  904-63  the  Pornocracy 
(pope  controlled  by  three  unworthy  women — Theodora 
and  her  daughters,  Marozia  and  Theodora),  brought 
frightful  moral  conditions.  In  Germany  the  Saxon 
kings  were  reforming  the  church  by  appointing  able 
bishops,  investing  them  with  authority  over  temporal 
matters  and  requiring  service  from  them  as  from  other 
nobles.  The  revival  of  the  empire  carried  this  reform- 
ing spirit  to  Rome  and  powerfully  influenced  the 
papacy  through  the  emperors.  When  Otto  the  Great 
reached  Rome  he  deposed  a  corrupt  pope  (963),  had 
a  better  one  elected,  and  forced  the  Romans  to  swear 
never  to  elect  a  pope  without  the  emperor's  consent  and 
approval.  This  attempt  at  control  occasioned  frequent 
schisms,  but  under  the  Ottos  there  was  real  improve- 
ment. Otto  III  adopted  the  plan  of  appointing  German 
popes.     After  his  death  the  great  office  fell  back  into 


134  A   GUIDE   TO  THE   STUDY 

the  hands  of  the  ItaHan  nobles  and  became  unspeakably 
corrupt.  Henry  HI  in  1046  held  a  synod  at  Sutri, 
which  deposed  two  rival  popes  and  elected  a  new  one. 
This  was  the  beginning  of  the  great  reform  which 
ushered  in  tlie  period  of  papal  power  and  ascendency. 
3.  Missions.  (S.  iv.  28-31;  A.  ii.  179;  K.  Sec. 
93:1-9.)  The  Northmen  who  migrated  into  Chris- 
tian territory  were  all  converted  during  this  period. 
The  work  of  Christianizing  Denmark,  Norway  and 
Sweden  was  carried  to  completion  amid  many  relapses 
and  much  persecution.  In  each  case  it  was  finally 
accomplished  by  the  conversion  of  the  royal  family, 
who  then  used  its  influence  in  favor  of  Christianity. 
The  work  of  preaching  was  done  chiefly  by  Anglo- 
Saxons  and  Danes  converted  in  England.  In  Denmark 
Christianity  was  finally  firmly  established  by  Canute 
(1016-35).  About  the  same  time  it  was  finally  vic- 
torious in  Sweden  and  Norway.  During  the  century, 
from  about  950  on,  the  Wends,  Poles,  Prussians  and 
Hungarians  were  converted  by  German  missionaries 
and  organized,  for  the  most  part,  under  German  bishops 
and  archbishops,  in  the  Roman  Catholic  faith. 

XL     Internal  History 

A.  ii.   192-205;  S.  iv.  73-91. 

Of  the  internal  development  of  the  church  during 
these  two  centuries  there  is  little  to  relate.  It  was  a 
period  of  stagnation  and  decay ;  few  men  of  ability  and 
little  literature.  In  England  Alfred  the  Great  strove 
to  enlighten  and  elevate  his  people,  but  with  little  suc- 
cess. 

An  important  reform  of  the  monasteries  was  begun 


OF  CHURCH  HISTORY  135 

by  the  organization  of  the  Congregation  of  Clugny, 
910  (Henderson,  329-33).  It  was  made  directly  sub- 
ject to  the  pope,  under  strict  rule,  possessed  of  beau- 
tiful service,  and  devoted  to  the  hierarchal  reform  of 
the  church.  Many  subordinate  monasteries  were  asso- 
ciated with  the  mother  institution,  and  together  they 
formed  a  branch  of  the  Benedictines,  known  as  the 
Congregation  of  Clugny.  This  movement  had  great 
influence  on  the  general  reform  of  the  church.  New 
orders  and  congregations  were  also  formed.  Schools 
continued  in  connection  with  the  more  important  monas- 
teries, but  were  much  decayed.  For  keeping  the  peace 
the  church  established  at  various  places  the  "Truce  of 
God,"  by  which  no  one  was  allowed  to  fight  from 
Wednesday  evening  to  Monday  morning,  nor  on  feast 
days.  The  Interdict  was  also  developed,  by  which  a 
whole  community  was  denied  all  the  blessings  of  reli- 
gion for  a  period,  in  punishment  for  some  sin  of  the 
prince  or  other  authority. 

Theology  (S.  iv.  138-141 ;  153-182)  suffered  com- 
plete decay,  there  being  no  development  or  writer  of 
importance  in  the  entire  world  during  the  two  centuries 
of  the  period.  Preaching  and  religious  instruction 
suffered  the  same  fate.  Morals  and  Christian  life  were 
at  their  ebb  tide.  This  period  is  the  "Dark  Age"  in 
the  West. 


13.6  A  GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 


THIRD  PERIOD— c.  1050  to  c.  1305 
A.     Eastern  Christianity 

The  power  of  the  later  empire  culminated  with 
Basil  II  (976-1025).  The  Macedonian  dynasty  came 
to  an  end  in  1057;  "the  third  anarchy,"  a  period  of 
terrible  disorders  and  civil  strife  lasting  twenty-five 
years,  began.  At  this  time  of  weakness  a  new  danger 
rose  in  the  East.  The  Seljouk  Turks  had  by  1050 
overrun  Persia  and  reached  Bagdad;  by  1064  much  of 
Armenia  had  been  conquered;  1071  the  emperor  was 
defeated  and  captured  at  Manzikert  and  most  of  the 
imperial  territory  in  Asia  rapidly  passed  into  hands  of 
the  Turk,  who  fixed  headquarters  at  Nicsea  in  1081 ; 
more  cruel  and  destructive  than  any  previous  invaders ; 
vast  stretches  of  country  utterly  desolated ;  Saracen  as 
well  as  Christian  governments  were  overthrown. 

The  Normans  began  the  conquest  of  S.  Italy  c.  1035 ; 
in  1059  Robert  Guiscard  was  recognized  by  pope  as 
Duke  of  Apulia;  in  some  35  years  they  had  conquered 
and  appropriated  all  the  possessions  of  the  E.  Empire 
in  that  region,  taking  Bari  the  last  Greek  stronghold  in 
1071 ;  also  expelled  the  Saracens,  formed  the  splendid 
duchy  of  Apulia,  recovered  Sicily  from  the  Saracens  by 
1090;  in  108 1  invaded  the  Balkan  Peninsula,  but  were 
defeated  and  expelled  in  1085. 

Just  when  it  seemed  as  if  the  empire  must  finally 
perish  the  Crusaders  from  W.  Europe  rolled  back  the 


OF  CHURCH  HISTORY  137 

flood  of  Turks  and  postponed  its  extinction  for  350 
years. 

In  1075  Jerusalem  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Turks, 
who  treated  pilgrims  from  the  West  so  barbarously 
that  twenty  years  later  (1095)  ^  crusade  for  their 
expulsion  was  started  by  the  pope  at  Clermont.  A 
land  route  to  the  East  had  recently  been  opened  by  the 
conversion  of  the  Hungarians  (1000-1050),  and  the 
Saracen  naval  power  had  been  destroyed  by  the  newly 
risen  Christian  maritime  powers — Genoa,  Pisa,  Venice 
and  the  Normans.  The  Crusaders  reached  Constan- 
tinople 1096;  swore  allegiance  to  the  emperor  Alexius 
who  promised  to  assist  them  with  men,  money  and 
supplies.  Instead,  he  followed  them  across  Asia  Minor 
appropriating  the  booty  and  capturing  the  weakened 
Turkish  garrisons  of  W.  Asia  Minor  (Smyrna, 
Ephesus,  Sardis,  etc.);  most  of  Asia  Minor  was  re- 
covered by  the  empire,  but  in  Syria  the  Crusaders  set 
up  independent  governments  (principalities  of  Ar- 
menia and  Antioch,  counties  of  Tripoli  and  Edessa, 
and  the  kingdom  of  Jerusalem).  For  nearly  200  years 
they  held  the  Turks  back,  but  they  diverted  the  trade 
from  Constantinople  to  the  ports  of  Syria  and  Egypt, 
thus  beginning  the  impoverishment  of  the  empire  which 
ultimately  caused  its  downfall. 

In  1 187  the  Bulgarians  began  a  revolt  against  the 
empire  which  resulted  in  their  independence  and  the 
establishment  of  a  great  Bulgarian  kingdom;  about 
the  same  time  Cyprus  revolted  and  set  up  an  inde- 
pendent government. 

In  1203  Crusaders  of  4th  crusade  were  induced  to 
capture  Constantinople  and  restore  to  the  throne  Isaac 


138  A  GUIDE  TO  THE  STUDY 

Angelus  who  had  been  bhnded  and  deposed  by  his 
brother.  Isaac  in  his  efforts  to  raise  the  enormous  sub- 
sidies he  had  promised  the  Crusaders  provoked  a  re- 
volt, lost  his  life  and  the  Crusaders  recaptured  and 
sacked  the  city  (1204),  obtaining  enormous  booty  and 
practically  ruining  the  city.  A  Latin  empire  was  now 
established  at  Constantinople  (1204-61)  with  various 
subordinate  provincial  governments  on  the  European 
side.  The  Latins  were  not  able  to  secure  the  Asiatic 
territory.  Several  Greeks  set  up  governments  there, 
the  most  important  at  Trebizond,  Nicsea,  and  one  in 
Epirus.  Gradually  the  government  at  Nicsea  recovered 
the  lost  territory  and  in  126 1  recaptured  Constantinople; 
but  it  never  recovered  all  of  Greece,  Epirus  or  Bul- 
garia, nor  was  it  able  to  rebuild  a  war  fleet  or  recover 
the  Oriental  trade  for  Constantinople.  The  Turks 
again  began  an  advance  and  by  end  of  period  held 
all  interior  Asia  Minor,  leaving  only  the  coasts  in  the 
hands  of  the  empire.  The  Latin  occupation  had  finally 
broken  the  power  of  the  Eastern  empire. 

2.  Christianity.  Of  Christianity  there  is  not  much  to 
relate.  All  parties  of  Christians  suffered  frightfully 
from  the  brutalities  of  the  Turks ;  whole  districts  were 
almost  depopulated  by  the  constant  cruelties  of  war.  All 
the  heretical  churches  continued  to  be  under  Moham- 
medan power.  The  Orthodox  Church  in  the  empire 
was  practically  a  department  of  state,  patriarchs  utterly 
subservient  to  civil  power,  often  corrupt  and  simoni- 
acal ;  schools  and  culture  were  maintained  with  difficulty 
and  all  missionary  endeavor  and  moral  energy  were  at 
an  end ;  preaching,  religious  instruction,  and  theological 
learning  almost  cease. 


OF   CHURCH   HISTORY  139 

The  Crusaders  set  up  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
wherever  they  estabHshed  their  authority,  sometimes 
persecuting  the  Greek  Catholics ;  very  few  of  the  people 
joined  the  Roman  Catholics;  the  Greek  Catholic  hier- 
archy was  maintained  and  when  the  Crusaders  disap- 
peared the  Roman  Church  disappeared  with  them; 
while  they  held  Constantinople  (1204-61)  the  patriarch 
had  his  seat  at  Nicsea;  the  church  was  despoiled  of  its 
wealth  by  the  Crusaders  but  returned  when  the  Latins 
were  expelled. 

Chief  gain  of  this  period  was  in  Russia,  all  W. 
Russia  being  converted.  Early  in  13th  century  Mo- 
hammedan Mongols  under  Genghis  Kahn  subdued 
Russia,  holding  it  for  nearly  three  centuries;  terrible 
blow  to  Russian  people,  turning  back  progress  for 
centuries;  Christian  worship  and  work  allowed,  and 
after  the  first  shock  there  was  a  revival  of  the  Church ; 
but  it  was  cut  off  from  Constantinople  and  the  patriarch 
removed  from  Kiev  to  Moscow,  1305;  great  develop- 
ment of  monasticism. 


I40  A  GUIDE  TO  THE  STUDY 


B.     Western  Christianity 

This  IS  the  period  of  papal  glory  and  ascendency, 
great  religious  and  intellectual  revival  and  activity. 
This  revival  began  with  the  period,  grew  to  c.  121 5 
and  then  maintained  its  high  level  for  nearly  a  century. 

I.     External  History 

I.  Political  History.  In  general  the  feudal  no- 
bility were  repressed,  royal  authority  exalted  and 
strengthened,  the  nations  consolidated;  but  the  empire 
began  again  to  fall  to  pieces  toward  the  close. 

(i)  Italy  was  not  a  political  unity  at  this  period. 
In  the  north  the  empire  exercised  sovereignty,  but 
gradually  lost  control  and  left  the  cities  Venice,  Flor- 
ence, Genoa,  Milan,  etc.  to  grow  into  independent  states 
of  various  forms  and  sizes;  in  the  center  the  papal 
state  cut  the  peninsula  in  two ;  in  the  south  the  Normans 
began  to  settle  about  1027,  rapidly  mastered  S.  Italy 
and  Sicily,  driving  out  Greeks  and  Saracens;  were 
sometimes  the  opponents  and  sometimes  allies  of  the 
pope;  in  1127  Robert  II  united  S.  Italy  and  Sicily  and 
in  1 130  assumed  title  "king  of  Sicily."  In  1194  the 
kingdom  passed  by  inheritance  to  the  Hohenstaufen 
family;  at  the  instance  of  the  pope  Charles  of  Anjou 
subdued  the  kingdom  (1266-8) ;  in  1282  the  Sicilians 
murdered  the  French  (Sicilian  vespers)  and  chose 
Peter  of  Aragon  as  king;  Naples  remained  with  the 


OF  CHURCH  HISTORY  141 

French  till  1442  when  it  also  was  conquered  by  king 
of  Aragon. 

It  was  the  political  policy  of  the  popes  to  protect 
their  own  dominions  by  fostering  disunion  in  Italy, 
striving  to  prevent  any  one  power  from  becoming 
dominant,  for  fear  of  injury  to  the  states  of  the  church. 

(2)  The  Empire.  (Bryce,  chs.  x-xii.)  The  out- 
standing facts  of  the  period  were  the  struggle  of  the 
emperors  to  suppress  the  feudal  nobles  in  Germany,  to 
assert  their  authority  over  Italy,  and  to  control  the 
church,  i.  e.,  the  papal  elections,  the  episcopal  appoint- 
ments and  the  church's  property.  Henry  IV.  (1056- 
II 06)  reached  his  majority  and  took  up  reins  of  gov- 
ernment in  1065;  put  down  Saxon  uprising  in  1075, 
had  Pope  Gregory  VII  deposed  by  German  Synod 
(1076)  because  of  his  investiture  decree  (see  below), 
was  put  under  ban,  did  penance  before  pope  at  Canossa, 
1077,  and  was  released.  Henceforth  two  great  parties 
in  the  empire  Guelph  and  Ghlbelline,  supported  pope 
and  emperor  respectively.  Rudolph  of  Swabia  chosen 
king  by  German  princes;  civil  war  till  1080  when  he 
was  killed.  Henry  captured  Rome  (1084),  set  up  an 
anti-pope,  who  crowned  him  emperor  and  expelled 
Gregory  VII,  who  died  at  Salerno  (1085).  Henry 
was  still  opposed  by  many  nobles,  and  was  finally  over- 
thrown by  his  own  son,  Henry  V  (11 06- 11 25).  Strife 
with  nobles  continued;  likewise  that  with  the  pope  till 
ended  (11 22)  by  Concordat  of  Worms;  peace  did  not 
last  long.  Frederick  I  (Barbarossa),  a  very  able 
prince,  continued  the  struggle  for  imperial  authority 
over  the  German  princes,  Italy  and  the  papacy.  The 
cities  of  Lombardy  had  grown  into  independent  repub- 


142  A   GUIDE   TO  THE   STUDY 

lies  in  recent  years,  and  the  Normans  had  expelled 
Greeks  and  Saracens  and  established  a  powerful  princi- 
pality in  S.  Italy ;  these  were  the  chief  support  of  the 
papacy.  To  reduce  them  and  the  pope,  Barbarossa 
made  six  expeditions  to  Italy.  On  the  first  (1154)  the 
republic  which  Arnold  of  Brescia,  an  opponent  of  the 
worldly  authority  and  riches  of  the  church,  had  set  up, 
was  overthrown  and  Arnold  was  burnt,  while  the  pope, 
restored  to  his  authority,  crowned  Frederick  emperor. 
On  the  second  the  rebellious  city  of  Milan  was  de- 
stroyed (1162)  and  an  anti-pope  was  set  up.  Milan 
was  soon  rebuilt,  and  in  1 1 76  the  Lombard  cities  com- 
pletely defeated  Frederick  at  Legnano  and  compelled 
him  to  make  peace  with  them  and  the  pope  practically 
on  their  own  terms.  Drowned  near  Tarsus  on  crusade 
(1190),  he  was  succeeded  by  Henry  VI,  who  reigned 
ably  till  1197.  Civil  war  followed  his  death  to  1208 
(Philip  to  1208,  Otto  IV  to  1215).  Struggle  between 
papacy  and  empire  reached  climax  under  Frederick  II 
(1215-50),  highly  gifted;  decided  opponent  of  the 
worldly  power  of  the  papacy.  Crowned  emperor  1220 
on  promise  to  lead  a  crusade;  put  under  ban  1227  for 
failure  to  do  so;  went  in  1228,  was  successful  crowning 
himself  emperor  in  Jerusalem;  was  released  from  the 
ban  1230;  peace  to  1239  when  he  was  again  put  under 
the  ban;  in  1245  deposed;  ban  renewed  and  the  princes 
ordered  to  execute  the  deposition.  Several  opposing 
kings  were  set  up.  After  the  death  of  Frederick,  his 
house  quickly  died  out;  an  interregnum  in  Germany 
1256-73;  the  kingdom  of  Naples  or  the  Two  Sicilies 
passed  to  the  French  prince  Charles  of  Anjou  1268. 
The  long  struggle  exhausted  both  the  papacy  and  the 


OF   CHURCH   HISTORY  143 

empire;  emperor  was  never  again  able  to  exercise 
authority  over  Italy  or  the  pope,  and  contented  himself 
most  of  the  time  in  trying  to  hold  Germany  together. 
The  popes  at  the  close  of  the  period  became  the  vassals 
of  France. 

(3)  In  Spain  the  conditions  of  the  preceding  period 
continued  through  this,  with  the  Christians  growing 
gradually  stronger.  The  kingdom  of  Portugal  was 
founded  c.  1140  out  of  territory  long  in  possession  of 
the  Christians. 

(4)  The  history  of  France  was  largely  a  struggle  of 
the  king  to  put  down  the  feudal  nobility  and  expel  the 
English  from  their  possessions  in  France.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  period  the  king  had  little  more 
authority  than  many  of  his  nobles.  When  the  duke  of 
Normandy  became  king  of  England  in  1066  he  re- 
tained his  possessions  in  France.  Subsequently  these 
were  enlarged  by  marriage  and  conquest,  and  consti- 
tuted a  source  of  infinite  trouble  for  the  French.  Philip 
II  (Augustus),  1 180-1223,  won  back  much  of  this  ter- 
ritory from  the  English  and  greatly  strengthened  the 
royal  authority.  The  same  work  was  carried  forward 
by  St.  Louis  (1226-70)  and  Philip  the  Fair  (1285- 
13 14),  but  at  the  close  of  the  period  the  English  kings 
still  held  large  portions  of  France  and  would  soon  lay 
claim  to  the  French  crown  and  thus  bring  on  the  Hun- 
dred Years  War. 

(5)  England.  At  beginning  of  period  England 
was  a  united  kingdom,  with  Scotland,  Wales  and  Ire- 
land independent.  Feudalism  had  not  risen  there. 
Dane  and  Saxon  had  been  amalgamated ;  Anglo-Saxon 
language,  customs  and  laws  prevailed.    William,  duke 


144  A   GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 

of  Normandy  (the  Conqueror),  overthrew  the  Saxon 
government  and  became  king,  1066.  He  was  French 
in  language,  ideas,  customs,  etc. ;  an  able  ruler ;  reor- 
ganized the  government  and  greatly  improved  con- 
ditions both  in  church  and  state,  introducing  many  Nor- 
mans into  all  departments.  Henry  H  (1154-89),  first 
of  the  Plantagenets,  obtained  by  inheritance  and  mar- 
riage nearly  half  of  France,  but  much  of  this  was  lost 
by  his  sons,  Richard  (1189-99)  and  John  (1199-1216). 
Henry  greatly  improved  the  administration  of  justice 
and  the  government  of  the  realm.  John  was  forced  to 
grant  the  Great  Charter  (Magna  Charta)  in  12 15 
(Henderson,  pp.  135-48).  Under  Henry  HI  (1216- 
72)  parliament  began  to  be  formed,  the  Commons  being 
called  first  in  1265.  This  innovation  was  formally 
adopted  in  1295.  Under  Edward  I  (1272-1307) 
Wales  was  incorporated  into  England,  and  an  effort 
was  made  to  conquer  the  Scotch,  who  defeated  the 
English  at  Bannockburn  in  13 14. 

Henry  H  in  1155  began  the  occupation  of  Ireland, 
basing  his  claim  upon  a  bull  of  Hadrian  IV  which 
granted  him  the  island  on  payment  of  a  small  sum  for 
each  dwelling;  English  authority  recognized  on  east 
coast  only. 

2.  The  Papacy.  (N.  i.  502-23;  A.  ii.  213-27; 
K.  Sec.  96:6-23;  H.  i.  753-77;  S.  v.  Part  I,  1-46.) 
In  the  preceding  period  the  church  had  been 
deeply  debased  in  morals,  utterly  subservient  to  secular 
power,  often  only  a  tool  of  princes.  The  spirit  of  the 
Clugniac  reform  seized  the  papacy  with  the  German 
popes  at  the  beginning  of  this  period.  It  was  directed 
against    corruption    of    all    kinds,    especially    simony 


OF   CHURCH   HISTORY        "         145 

and  concubinage  among  the  clergy.  The  popes 
from  1048  on  sought  to  repress  these  two  evils.  As 
means  to  these  ends,  the  effort  was  made  to  bring 
the  whole  church  under  the  papacy  and  free  it  from  the 
state ;  this  effort  gradually  grew  into  an  attempt  to  sub- 
ject the  state  to  the  control  of  the  church,  which  was 
regarded  as  the  spiritual,  and,  therefore,  the  higher 
power.  The  church  was  to  be  a  world-wide  and 
supreme  power.  In  order  to  free  the  popes  from  the 
control  of  the  Roman  nobles,  and  of  the  emperor,  the 
decisive  voice  in  the  election  of  pope  was  given  to 
a  college  of  cardinals  in  1059  (Henderson,  36iff). 
Hildebrand,  the  moving  spirit  in  these  reforms  from 
1050  on,  became  Pope  Gregory  VII  (1073-85),  and  at 
once  pushed  them  with  great  vigor  and  ability. 

Political  relations  between  Italy  and  the  Empire 
caused  the  chief  conflict  to  be  with  the  latter,  but  there 
were  conflicts  with  all  the  Western  powers.  In  1074 
Gregory  renewed  the  prohibition  against  concubinage, 
sent  the  canons  to  all  bishops  and  despatched  legates 
to  see  that  they  were  enforced.  In  cases  of  resistance 
he  called  upon  secular  princes  to  execute  the  law,  and 
it  was  done  with  great  rigor  in  some  cases ;  almost  com- 
plete triumph  of  official  celibacy.  He  next  attacked 
simony  (1075),  striking  at  its  root  by  forbidding  lay- 
men to  give,  or  bishops  and  abbots  to  receive  from 
laymen,  a  bishopric  or  abbacy  by  investiture  with  ring 
and  crozier  as  a  mark  of  their  allegiance  to  secular 
authority.  This  led  to  the  celebrated  conflict  with 
emperor  Henry  IV  over  lay  investiture;  the  pope's 
demand  would  have  made  the  German  bishops  inde- 
pendent princes  and  withdrawn  vast  church  property 


146  A   GUIDE   TO   THE    STUDY 

from  civil  control;  Henry  refused  to  obey,  invested 
an  archbishop  of  Milan,  and  v^hen  the  pope  threatened 
excommunication,  declared  him  deposed;  1076  pope 
excommunicated  Henry,  and  the  German  princes  pre- 
pared to  depose  him;  Jan.  25-7,  1077,  Henry  did  pen- 
ance at  Canossa ;  released  from  ban,  but  civil  v^ar  never- 
theless; 1080  pope  again  excommunicated  Henry  who 
now  chose  an  anti-pope  (schism  lasted  till  1139),  cap- 
tured Rome  1084;  Gregory  d.  at  Salerno  1085. 

In  England  William  the  Conqueror,  who,  with  Lan- 
franc,  was  reorganizing  the  English  church  on  a 
French  model,  1070  on,  resisted  successfully  Gregory's 
claims.  He  appointed  and  invested  the  bishops,  giving 
the  pope  only  the  right  of  confirming  his  action;  gave 
Canterbury  the  primacy  over  York;  allowed  no  pope 
to  be  recognized  by  his  clergy,  nor  any  papal  legate  or 
communication  to  enter  England,  without  his  permis- 
sion; refused  to  swear  fidelity  to  Gregory  and  his  suc- 
cessors, and  forbade  marriage  to  the  canonical  clergy 
only,  and  to  those  who  were  in  the  future  to  be  or- 
dained. 

After  Gregory's  death  the  investiture  strife  con- 
tinued in  Germany,  France  and  England  (Anselm). 
In  mi  pope  and  emperor  agreed  that  the  church 
should  give  up  all  its  feudal  rights  and  possessions  to 
the  emperor  who  would  in  turn  give  up  the  right  of 
investiture;  but  the  German  clergy  and  princes  would 
not  accept  this  arrangement  because  it  would  have 
greatly  reduced  the  importance  of  the  German  bishops 
and  enormously  strengthened  the  crown.  Peace  finally 
made  with  the  empire  by  Concordat  of  Worms,  1122. 
(Henderson  408 f)  by  which  in  Germany  bishops  must 


OF   CHURCH   HISTORY  147 

be  elected  in  presence  of  emperor  or  his  representative 
and  be  invested  {before  consecration)  with  his  worldly 
goods  and  rights  by  means  of  the  scepter;  in  Burgundy 
and  Italy  investiture  was  to  take  place  after  consecra- 
tion ;  the  state  thus  lost  its  spiritual  functions  exercised 
since  Charlemagne.  During  the  reign  of  Barbarossa 
the  strife  broke  out  afresh.  Imperial  law  was  set  over 
against  canon  law  (Roncaglia,  1158),  and  a  new 
schism  lasted  from  11 59  to  11 77. 

At  this  time  there  was  serious  difficulty  between 
church  and  state  in  England.  Henry  II  of  England 
sought  to  make  the  clergy  amenable  to  the  royal  court 
and  otherwise  bring  them  under  the  control  of  the 
state.  He  was  opposed  by  Thomas  a  Becket,  who, 
however,  agreed  to  the  Constitutions  of  Clarendon, 
1 164  (Henderson,  pp.  11-16),  which  gave  the  king 
authority  over  the  clergy.  Becket  repented,  fled  to 
France,  was  later  reconciled  to  the  king,  returned  to 
England,  caused  fresh  trouble,  and  was  murdered  by 
some  irresponsible  knights  at  Canterbury,  11 70.  Henry 
did  penance  for  this,  gave  up  most  of  his  advantages, 
and  Becket  was  canonized  while  his  sarcophagus  be- 
came a  famous  shrine. 

In  1 1 79  it  was  decreed  at  the  third  Lateran  council 
that  two-thirds  of  the  votes  of  the  cardinals  were  neces- 
sary to  election.  This  to  avoid  further  schism  (Hen- 
derson, p.  336f). 

Innocent  III  stands  at  the  zenith  of  papal  power. 
He  mediated  between  the  rival  kings  Otto  and  Philip 
of  Germany;  educated  and  consecrated  the  Emperor 
Frederick  II;  put  France  under  interdict  (1200)  and 
forced  king  Philip  to  take  back  his  wronged  wife;  he 


148  A   GUIDE   TO   THE   STUDY 

crowned  Peter  of  Aragon  at  Rome  (1204)  as  a  fief 
of  the  Holy  See;  Armenia  sought  his  protection;  the 
Hungarian  king  obtained  his  crown  from  the  pope; 
he  forced  an  objectionable  man,  Stephen  Langton,  into 
the  See  of  Canterbury,  and  when  John  resisted,  put 
England  under  the  interdict,    1208;  put  John  under 
ban,   deposed   him,    1212,   and   ordered   the   King  of 
France  to  execute  his  decree.    John  surrendered,  made 
over  England  to  the  Holy  See,  and  received  it  again 
as  a  fief  121^.     The  brilliant  fourth  Lateran  Council, 
V1215,  was  *'the  apex  of  papal  glory."     A  bitter  fight 
between  pope  and  emperor  continued  through  the  reign 
of  Frederick  H,  and  even  St.  Louis  of  France  issued 
a  Pragmatic  Sanction  1269  (of  doubtful  authenticity) 
protecting  the  French  church  from  the  tyranny  and 
exactions  of  the  papacy.     Boniface  VHI  undertook  to 
play  the  role  of  Innocent  III.    The  kings  of  France  and 
England  were  taxing  the  clergy  to  carry  on  their  wars. 
This  Boniface  forbade  on  pain  of  excommunication 
in  the  Bull  Clerics  laicos  1296   (Henderson,  432-4). 
Philip  replied  by  forbidding  the  export  of  money  from 
France  to  Rome,  thus  cutting  off  papal  revenues.    The 
pope    explained    away    his    meaning    and    canonized 
Philip's  grandfather,  Louis  IX.     In  England  he  met 
with  no  better  success.     In  1300  he  celebrated  a  great 
jubilee    (the  first),   and  in    1302   published  the  Bull 
Unam  Sanctum   (Henderson,  435-7) »  making  obedi- 
ence to  the  pope  necessary  to  salvation,  the  highest 
claim  ever  made  by  the  pope.     He  died  in  mortal  con- 
flict with  the  French  king  in  1303. 

3.  The  Hierarchy  and  Constitution  of  Church. 
(A.  ii.  228-232;  K.  Sec.  97;  S.  V.  Part  I,   122-9.) 


OF   CHURCH   HISTORY  149 

During  this  period  the  great  ecclesiastical  power  was 
more  and  more  centralized  in  the  pope;  the  clergy 
largely  freed  from  civil  control.  Canon  law  was 
thoroughly  systematized  by  Gratian  (c.  1150); 
Crusades  made  the  pope  the  central  figure  of  Christen- 
dom ;  he  is  coming  to  be  considered  the  vicar  of  God, 
or  of  Christ,  the  head  and  ultimate  source  of  authority 
in  church  and  state;  in  church  this  authority  is  exer- 
cised directly;  in  state  indirectly  through  secular 
rulers ;  both  swords  belong  to  the  church ;  the  spiritual  1 
is  wielded  by  the  church,  the  secular  by  kings  for  the  ^' 
church  and  at  its  command ;  the  pope  is  more  and  more 
the  source  of  ecclesiastical  law,  so  that  councils  must 
be  called  and  held  under  papal  authority,  their  decrees 
published  in  his  name ;  he  can  dispense  with  these  laws, 
and  as  a  court  of  last  resort,  cases  from  the  whole  of 
Christendom  can  be  appealed  to  him  either  before  or 
after  trial;  metropolitans  were  required  to  swear  the 
oath  of  fealty  to  him,  while  the  exclusive  right  of  con- 
firming and  consecrating  bishops,  and  in  some  cases 
nominating  them,  begins  to  be  claimed  by  him ;  legates 
go  over  the  world  exercising  directly  and  personally 
his  power ;  increasing  business  develops  a  large  Roman 
court  (Curia),  which  is  henceforth  to  fill  an  important 
place  in  papal  history;  effort  is  made  to  deprive  the 
laity  of  all  influence  on  election  of  bishops  and  to 
withdraw  the  clergy  entirely  from  civil  burdens  and 
control;  the  enormous  income  of  the  church  from  its 
own  possessions  was  further  increased  by  tithes  and 
many  special  taxes,  sale  of  dispensations  and  other 
ecclesiastical  favors;  the  money  often  raised  to  meet 
the  cost  of  a  crusade,  and  then  expended  otherwise; 


I50  A  GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 

the  enforcing  of  celibacy  made  the  clergy  more  depend- 
ent on  the  papacy,  while  the  monks  were  gradually 
released  from  episcopal  and  put  under  direct  papal 
control;  the  mendicant  orders  established  under  the 
direct  control  of  the  papacy  formed  a  powerful  mobile 
standing  papal  army. 

While  this  hierarchical  organization  was  being  thus 
consolidated  into  an  absolute  monarchy,  it  was  at  the 
same  time  being  geographically  extended  by  missions 
over  the  remainder  of  N.  Europe  and,  by  the  influence 
of  the  Norman  conquerors  of  England,  over  Scotland 
under  St.  Marguerite  (1045-93)  and  David  (1124-53). 

4.  MoNASTiciSM — Mendicant  Orders.  (A.  ii. 
239-50;  H.  i.  707-13,  807-18;  K.  Sec.  98;  S.  v.  Part  I, 
61-72.)  This  was  the  flourishing  period  of  monasti- 
cism.  Old  orders  were  reformed,  new  ones  founded, 
the  mendicant  orders  organized;  monks  were  greatly 
multiplied,  furnishing  the  great  men  of  the  time; 
abbots  had  practically  episcopal  rank  with  liberty 
in  some  cases  to  wear  bishops'  mitres.  The  monks 
were  now  considered  clergymen,  and  lay  breth- 
ren were  admitted  to  the  monasteries  to  attend  to 
worldly  business.  Some  of  the  most  important  new 
organizations  were  (i)  Carthusians,  founded  1086  in 
Southeastern  France,  were  very  rigid.  (2)  The  Cis- 
tercians founded  at  Citaux  1098  on  the  basis  of  obedi- 
ence to  bishops,  non-interference  with  pastorates  of 
others,  absence  of  ornament  in  dress,  churches  and 
monasteries,  rendered  great  service  in  Christianizing 
eastern  Germany.  (3)  Premonstratensians  founded 
1 121,  strictly  ascetic,  but  given  to  preaching  and  the 
cure  of  souls. 


OF  CHURCH   HISTORY  151 

Others  of  less  importance  multiplied  to  such  an  ex- 
tent that  the  formation  of  additional  orders  was  for- 
bidden at  Fourth  Lateran  Council  12 15.  Nevertheless 
the  two  great  mendicant  orders  were  approved  as 
brotherhoods  by  the  Pope  almost  immediately.  They 
did  not  withdraw  from  the  world,  but  went  among 
men,  teaching,  preaching,  serving;  living  from  charity. 
They  were  home  missionaries,  traveling  evangelists; 
they  went  out  to  serve.  ( i )  Franciscans  or  Minorites 
{fratres  minores),  founded  by  Francis  of  Assisi,  son 
of  a  rich  merchant;  renounced  world  1208;  soon  gath- 
ered a  company;  devoted  themselves  to  service  and 
missions;  adopted  rule  1221,  revised  and  approved  by 
pope  1223  (Rule,  Henderson,  344-9).  They  renounced 
property,  went  barefoot,  clothed  in  rough  garments, 
devoted  themselves  to  self-denying  service;  received 
right  to  preach,  hear  confession  and  absolve  every- 
where; were  to  support  themselves  by  labor  and  beg- 
ging, to  hold  no  property;  but  eventually  they  split 
over  this  question,  the  rigorous  party  (spirituelles) 
becoming  hostile  to  the  papacy  and  hierarchy.  The 
liberal  party  had  a  general  in  Rome,  a  provincial  in 
each  country,  and  a  guardian  over  each  cloister.  (2) 
The  Dominicans  or  Preaching  Monks,  founded  by 
Dominic,  a  Spanish  noble,  for  winning  back  the  heretics 
of  S.  France,  were  authorized  by  the  pope,  12 16. 
Their  purpose  was  popular  preaching  and  hearing  con- 
fession; they  had  a  general  in  Rome,  a  provincial  in 
each  country  and  a  prior  over  each  monastery ;  encour- 
aged liberal  studies,  soon  held  many  important  profes- 
sorial chairs,  had  many  great  scholars,  were  ardent 
missionaries,  were  entrusted  with  the  management  of  the 


\ 


152  A  GUIDE  TO  THE  STUDY 

Inquisition  1232.  Franciscans  cultivated  learning  to  a 
less  degree.  The  two  orders  have  ever  been  sharp 
rivals.  Other  orders  of  somewhat  similar  character 
were  the  Carmelites  (founded  on  Mt.  Carmel),  and 
the  Augustinians.  Several  orders  of  women  rose  dur- 
ing this  period.  The  great  orders  became  rich,  brought 
confusion  in  the  church  and  were  bitterly  criticised  by 
the  end  of  the  period. 

Semi-monastic  organizations  were  formed  among 
laymen.  ( i )  The  Humiliati  at  Milan  in  nth  and  12th 
centuries.  (2)  The  Beguines  for  women  and  Beg- 
hards  for  men  in  France,  Belgium  and  elsewhere.  They 
did  not  withdraw  from  society  but  lived  a  celibate  life 
devoted  to  the  cultivation  of  piety  and  to  Christian 
service,  and  eventually  became  more  or  less  hostile  to 
the  church. 

5.  Crusades  (Wars  of  the  Cross).  (K.  Sees.  94, 
98:8;  N.  i.  456-63;  S.  v.  Part  I  47-60;  H.  i.  787-804; 
A.  ii.  216).  The  crusades  (i 095-1 291)  were  an  at- 
tempt of  W.  Christians  to  recover  the  holy  places  of 
Palestine  (Jerusalem,  Bethlehem  and  Nazareth)  from 
the  Mohammedans,  who  had  held  them  for  over  four 
centuries.  Causes,  (a)  Cruel  treatment  of  Christian 
pilgrims  (numerous  since  1000)  from  West  to  Jeru- 
salem, captured  by  Turks  from  Arabs  1076;  (b)  dis- 
turbance of  trade  with  Orient  by  Turks.  Every  possible 
motive  was  invoked  to  induce  men  to  go.  Separate 
crusades,  variously  numbered  by  different  writers,  were 
rather  periods  of  special  activity  than  single  expeditions. 
( I )  The  first,  preached  by  Peter  the  Hermit  and  Urban 
II  (Clermont)  in  1095,  was  composed  almost  entirely 
of  French,  led  by  Norman  and  French  nobles  (Godfrey 


OF  CHURCH   HISTORY  153 

of  Bouillon,  Raymond,  Hugh,  Tancred,  Robert  of  Nor- 
mandy) but  no  kings,  went  overland  via  Constanti- 
nople, captured  Nicea,  Tarsus,  Antioch  (Holy  Lance), 
Jerusalem  July  15,1099,  with  bloody  slaughter;  set  up 
the  kingdom  of  Jerusalem,  and  organized  a  Roman 
Catholic  church,  with  patriarch,  four  archbishops  and 
several  bishops,  under  the  authority  of  the  pope.  A 
side  expedition  by  Baldwin  captured  Edessa  and  set 
up  government  there  (1097-1144).  Soon  most  of  the 
surviving  crusaders  returned  to  Europe.  (2)  The 
second  crusade  (i  147-9)  occasioned  by  recapture  of 
Edessa  in  1144  and  again  1146  by  Mohammedans, 
preached  by  Bernard  of  Clairvaux,  composed  of  French 
and  Germans,  led  by  Louis  VH  of  France  and  Conrad 
ni  of  Germany,  went  partly  by  land  and  partly  by  sea, 
lost  most  of  its  men  on  the  way,  attempted  in  vain  to 
capture  Damascus.  A  dead  failure.  (3)  Third  cru- 
sade (1189-92),  occasioned  by  re-conquest  of  Pales- 
tine and  capture  of  Jerusalem  by  Saladin  (1187); 
composed  of  French,  Germans  and  English,  led  by 
Emperor  Frederick  Barbarossa,  who  went  by  land  and 
was  drowned  near  Tarsus  (1190),  by  Philip  H  of 
France  and  Richard  Coeur  de  Lion,  of  England;  last 
two  went  by  sea,  occupying  Cyprus  on  way  to  Acco 
which  they  quickly  captured ;  the  French  then  returned 
home,  while  Richard  tried  in  vain  to  capture  Jerusalem, 
succeeding  only  in  recovering  the  coast  from  Joppa 
to  Acco.  On  his  way  home  he  was  held  captive  in 
Austria  for  several  months  until  ransomed.  (4) 
Fourth  crusade  (1202-4),  incited  by  Innocent  III,  com- 
posed chiefly  of  French  and  led  by  French  barons; 
aimed  primarily  at  Egypt,  but  on  way  captured  Zara 


154  A  GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 

in  Dalmatia,  which  was  a  rebounding  city  of  great 
notoriety ;  at  Constantinople  restored  Isaac  Angelus  to 
his  throne;  when  he  failed  to  establish  the  Roman 
church  and  pay  the  money  promised  they  recaptured 
Constantinople,  set  up  a  Latin  empire  (1204-61)  and 
several  dependent  governments  in  Byzantine  territory, 
all  having  Roman  church.  Several  minor  expeditions 
followed;  Children's  crusade  1212  and  others.  (5) 
Fifth  crusade  (i228f)  undertaken  by  Emperor  Fred- 
erick II  who  recovered  by  treaty  the  holy  places  Naza- 
reth, Bethlehem  and  Jerusalem  (where  he  crowned  him- 
self emperor)  together  with  a  strip  of  coast  land  from 
Sidon  to  Joppa.  In  1244  Jerusalem  was  recaptured 
by  Turks  who  have  since  held  it.  (6)  Sixth  crusade 
(1248-54)  was  led  by  Louis  IX  (Saint)  of  France 
who  attacked  Egypt  as  the  key  to  the  Mohammedan 
position,  was  defeated  and  captured  near  Cairo,  was 
ransomed,  sailed  to  Palestine,  fortified  Acco  and  other 
coast  cities  and  returned  to  France  1254.  Antioch  fell 
1268.  (7)  Seventh  crusade  (1270)  was  also  led  by 
Louis  IX  who  attacked  Tunis,  but  was  swept  away  with 
most  of  his  army  by  disease.  In  1291  Acco  was  cap- 
tured by  the  Mohammedans,  the  Christians  gave  up 
Tyre,  Beyrut  and  Sidon  and  the  crusades  were  at  an 
end.  Various  subsequent  attempts  of  popes  to  arouse 
the  crusading  spirit  were  unsuccessful. 

Some  of  the  results  were  ( i )  elevation  of  the  church 
and  papacy;  (2)  decay  of  feudalism  in  W.  Europe 
and  strengthening  of  kingly  governments ;  (3)  develop- 
ment of  commerce  and  of  cities;  (4)  diffusion  of 
culture  in  the  West;  (5)  development  of  knighthood; 
(6)  founding  of  three  orders  of  spiritual  knights  who 


OF  CHURCH  HISTORY  155 

took  the  three  monastic  vows  and  in  addition  vow 
to  fight  unbeHevers.  (a)  Knights  Templars  or  Temp- 
lars were  founded  by  French  knights  (1118)  near 
Solomon's  temple;  composed  of  knights,  spiritual  and 
serving  brothers  under  a  Grand  Master;  wore  white 
mantle  with  red  cross;  transferred  to  Cyprus  1291 ; 
in  13 12  dissolved  by  the  pope  at  request  of  French 
king  who  wanted  their  great  wealth,  (b)  Knights  of 
St.  John  or  Hospitalers.  Originally  a  brotherhood  of 
the  hospital  of  St.  John  in  Jerusalem  formed  by  Italian 
merchants  (1048),  it  was  changed  into  an  order  of 
knights  1 121.  They  wore  black  mantle  with  white 
cross,  were  transferred  to  Cyprus  1291,  to  Rhodes 
13 10,  to  Malta  1526,  where  they  were  dissolved  by 
Napoleon  1798.  (c)  Teutonic  Order.  A  brotherhood 
of  Germans  formed  at  Acco  (1190)  to  care  for  the 
sick,  was  transformed  into  an  order  of  knights  1198, 
wore  white  mantle  >vith  black  cross.  Invited  in  1226 
by  Duke  of  Poland  to  fight  the  heathen  Prussians,  they 
reduced  Prussia  (1230-83)  and  founded  a  monastic 
state.  In  1291  the  seat  of  the  Master  of  the  order  was 
transferred  to  Venice,  1309  to  Marienburg,  1457  to 
Konigsberg.  In  1525  many  of  the  knights  joined  the 
Reformation,  and  the  state  was  made  a  secular  duchy 
which  later  developed  into  kingdom  of  Prussia  (1701). 
6.  Missions.  (K.  Sec.  93;  M.  ii.  361-7;  A.  ii.  261. 
4 ;  S.  V.  Part  I,  7Z'7- )  Amid  much  hardship  and  S'ltf er- 
ing,  many  relapses  and  discouragements,  thf  ^tsi  of 
N.  Europe  was  Christianized  and  organi  ed  under 
papacy  during  this  period.  It  was  done  largely  by  the 
monastic  orders  under  the  direction  and  ,vith  the  sup- 
port of  northern  bishops.     The  Wends  Pomeranians, 


156  A   GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 

Finns  in  12th  centur}^  Esthonia,  Livonia,  Courland 
in  1 2th  and  13th  centuries;  Prussia  and  Lithuania 
in  13th  century.  A  Latin  mission  was  undertaken  by 
the  popes  to  the  Mongols  in  the  far  East  in  1249  and 
1253.  Unsuccessful.  Again  in  1292  the  Dominicans 
were  unsuccessful  (Marco  Polo).  In  1291  Francis- 
cans began  mission  in  Pekin;  founded  churches,  bap- 
tized many  Mongols,  translated  the  Psalms  and  New 
Testament  into  Mongolian  and  flourished  generally 
until  1370,  when  the  Mongolian  dynasty  was  over- 
thrown and  driven  away  along  with  the  Christians,  by 
the  Ming  dynasty.  In  Persia  the  Mongolian  dynasty 
wavered  between  Christianity  and  Islam  until  1405, 
when  it  was  overthrown  and  Islam  has  been  state  reli- 
gion in  that  country  since. 

Various  efforts  were  made  for  the  conversion  of 
Mohammedans  in  N.  Africa,  Sicily  and  Spain.  St. 
Francis  at  Damietta  (12 19)  and  several  Franciscans; 
likewise  several  Dominicans.  Raymund  Lull  of  Ma- 
jorca, d.  13 1 5.    All  were  fruitless. 

II.     Theology — Scholasticism 

K.  Sees.  99-103;  N.  i.  474-90;  H.  i.  851-901;  A.  ii.  251-8;  M.  ii. 

368-81,  422-38;  S.  V.  Part  I.  95-105;  Fisher,  Hist.  Doc. 

pp.  212-62. 

••  This  the  productive  period  in  mediaeval  theology ; 

' '.  m  in  Latin,  chiefly  by  Italians,  French  and  Ger- 

.   VuiJ'iaracterized  by  some  of  the  boldest  and  most 
acute  tnmJ^  -^ 

,      1   ^^'ing  of  Christian  history;  from  its  home  in 

4.  A-u^  ri^  is  commonly  called  Scholasticism;  its  aim 
was  not  the  a.  \.      ,        ,      , 

1    ^  ^u^  ;,icf;fi.scovery  or  further  development  of  truth, 
but  the  justmc  j  u      u  ^    ^  •        u 

'ation  of  existmg  church  doctrmes  by 


OF  CHURCH   HISTORY  157 

reason.  Its  method  was  deductive  logic,  dialectic  and 
speculation,  the  division  and  subdivision  of  a  general 
subject  until  each  detail  was  exhausted.  The  material 
was  sentences  of  the  Fathers,  dogmas  and  canons  of 
councils,  decretals  of  the  popes,  etc.  The  conclusion 
was  confirmed  by  quoting  the  Fathers,  Aristotle  and 
the  Bible.  It  was  in  no  sense  Biblical  theology,  and 
in  later  years  it  degenerated  into  trivialities.  The 
great  philosophical  problem  was  the  truth  of  realism, 
conceptualism  or  nominalism  {ante  rem,  in  re,  post 
rem) ;  this  problem  affected  more  or  less  all  other  ques- 
tions; subjects  discussed  were  the  being,  nature  and 
attributes  of  God;  Trinity;  relation  of  God  to  the 
world;  freedom  and  necessity;  ethics,  etc.  The  study 
of  Aristotle  after  1200  exerted  profound  influence  on 
method  and  later  upon  the  matter  of  theology.  His- 
tory of  scholasticism  is  usually  divided  into  three 
periods;  (i)  Its  rise  1050- 1200;  (2)  Its  glory  13th 
century;  (3)  Its  decline  14th  century.  In  first  period 
nominalism,  in  second  realism,  in  third  nominalism 
again,  prevailed.  The  universities  in  13th  century  be- 
came its  chief  home.  There  was  little  study  of  church 
history,  exegesis  or  practical  theology. 

The  period  begins  with  a  revival  of  the  transub- 
stantiation  controversy  in  1050.  Berenger  of  Tours 
(1000-1088)  opposed  the  view  that  the  substance  of 
the  elements  is  changed  into  the  body  of  Christ,  main- 
taining that  only  believers  partake  of  his  body  and 
blood;  Opposed  by  Lanfranc  of  Bee  (1005-89),  and 
1059  was  forced  to  admit  that  the  elements  become  the 
body  of  Christ  which  is  eaten  with  the  teeth.  Later  it 
was  determined  that  the  whole  of  Christ  (body,  soul 


158  A   GUIDE   TO  THE   STUDY 

and  divinity)  is  in  every  particle  of  the  bread  and  of 
the  wine.  This  view  adopted  by  4th  Lateran  Council 
1215.  Ansclm  (1059-1109)  maintained  that  faith  pre- 
cedes knowledge,  developed  the  ontological  argument 
for  the  existence  of  God,  the  theory  of  the  vicarious 
atonement  in  Cur  deus  homo,  and  further  developed 
the  doctrine  of  original  sin.  Abelard  (1079-1142),  a 
famous  teacher  and  dialectician,  exalted  the  intellect, 
criticized  many  church  doctrines,  e.  g.,  the  trinity 
(holding  Sabellian  views)  and  inspiration,  founded 
the  moral  theory  of  the  atonement,  championed  ethical 
rather  than  dogmatic  interests,  the  modern  man  of 
the  Middle  Ages;  was  condemned  by  councils  in  1121 
and  1 141.  His  great  opponent  was  Bernard  of  Clair- 
vaiix  (1091-1153),  conservative  and  churchman,  great 
preacher  with  vast  influence,  mystical  but  devoted  to 
church  doctrines,  defender  of  orthodoxy,  hymn-writer. 
He  earnestly  opposed  Abelard's  view  of  the  atonement 
and  his  exaltation  of  intellect,  maintaining  that  faith 
is  the  door  to  knowledge,  that  ecstatic  intuitions  of 
divine  truth  are  possible.  The  theologians  of  the  school 
of  St.  Victor  near  Paris  struck  a  middle  course  between 
the  rationalism  of  Abelard  and  the  conservatism  of 
Bernard,  trying  to  combine  mysticism  and  fearless 
dialectics.  These  were  William  of  Champeaux,  Hugo 
and  Richard  of  St.  Victor. 

Books  on  theology  were  made  largely  of  quotations 
from  Fathers,  especially  Augustine,  and  were  known  as 
sentences.  The  most  notable  of  these  is  the  "Sentences" 
of  Peter  Lombard  (1100-64)  which  was  the  standard 
text-book  on  theology  for  centuries. 

As  we  turn  into  the  13th  century  there  appear  two 


OF   CHURCH   HISTORY  159 

new  influences  which  bring  mediaeval  theology  to  its 
zenith — the  mendicant  orders,  and  renewed  study  of 
Aristotle.  St.  Francis  sought  to  reproduce  the  "life  and 
poverty  of  Jesus,"  through  contemplation,  self-renun- 
ciation and  service  of  men;  this  personal  effort  for 
the  salvation  and  care  of  souls  was  largely  open  to  the 
laity.  His  methods  were  copied  by  the  Dominicans, 
and  during  this  century  nearly  all  the  great  scholars 
belonged  to  one  or  the  other  of  these  orders.  Aristotle 
was  scarcely  known  in  the  West  before  1200,  though 
he  was  intelligently  studied,  translated  and  commented 
on  by  the  Arabs  and  Jews  of  Spain  (Averroes  of  Cor- 
dova, d.  1 198  and  the  Jew  Maimonides,  d.  1204). 
This  study,  introduced  by  the  Jews  into  France,  was 
at  first  opposed  by  the  church  (1209),  but  soon  thor- 
oughly approved ;  Aristotle  was  called  the  "precursor  of 
Christ  in  natural  things,"  was  "thought  to  have  ex- 
hausted the  powers  of  human  reason  in  the  ascertain- 
ment of  religious  and  ethical  truth."  The  man  who 
introduced  him  into  the  University  of  Paris  and  west- 
ern theology  was  Alexander  of  Hales,  d.  1245,  "irre- 
sistible doctor,"  an  Englishman  who  in  1222  became 
the  first  Franciscan  teacher  in  the  University  of  Paris. 
He  studied  Aristotle,  the  Arabic  commentaries  on  him, 
and  wrote  commentaries  of  his  own  which  soon  re- 
ceived the  approval  of  the  pope.  He  was  succeeded  by 
the  Franciscan  Bonaventura  (i 221-12 74),  an  Italian, 
"seraphic  doctor,"  who  wrote  extensively,  combining 
in  himself  dialectical  and  mystical  tendencies.  Among 
the  Dominicans  the  greatest  were  Albert  the  Great,  a 
German  (i  193-1280),  "doctor  universalis,"  with  won- 
derful  attainments   in   theology,    philosophy   and   the 


i6o  A  GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 

sciences;  taught  at  Cologne  and  elsewhere,  wrote  on 
many  subjects;  his  pupil,  Thomas  Aquinas,  an  Italian 
(1227-74),  ''doctor  angelicus,"  educated  at  Cologne 
and  Paris,  taught  at  Rome,  Bologna,  Pisa,  Naples,  was 
the  ablest  thinker  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  next  to 
Augustine  the  father  of  most  influence  in  the  Catholic 
Church;  deeply  pious,  Augustinian  in  theology,  author 
of  many  works,  of  which  his  summa  theologica  is  most 
important  book  of  the  Middle  Ages.  He  was  opposed 
at  many  points  by  John  Duns  Scotus,  2l  Scotchman 
(1266- 1 308),  "doctor  subtilis,"  subtle  dialectician  and 
bold  thinker;  he  attacked  many  arguments  of  scholas- 
ticism while  holding  church  doctrines,  and  thus  pre- 
pared its  downfall ;  was  semi-Pelagian  in  theology,  sup- 
ported doctrine  of  immaculate  conception  of  Mary. 
Two  parties,  Thomists  and  Scotists,  kept  up  a  long 
and  bitter  controversy.  Roger  Bacon  (c.  1214-94), 
forerunner  of  modern  scientists. 

III.     Worship 

K.  Sec.  104;  M.  ii.  321-45;  S.  v.  Part  I,  1 12-21;  130-7;  700-63. 
The  Roman  liturgy  was  now  generally  adopted  ex- 
cept in  Spain  where  it  and  others  were  used.  Preach- 
ing was  revived  in  nth  century  and  became  a  power 
among  the  sects  and  in  the  church  in  12th  and  13th 
centuries.  Many  bishops  and  most  great  schoolmen 
were  popular  preachers ;  laymen  and  uneducated  secular 
clergy  were  forbidden  to  preach.  Popular  preaching 
was  in  the  vernacular,  while  before  the  clergy  it  was 
in  Latin.  Its  substance  was  largely  stories  of  saints, 
miracles,  etc.,  but  there  was  also  sound  moral  teaching. 
Bernard  of   Clairvaux,   Berthcld   of   Regensburg,   d. 


OF   CHURCH   HISTORY  i6i 

1272,  were  great  preachers.  Sunday  was  largely  super- 
seded by  annual  festivals  of  one  kind  and  another; 
number  of  the  sacraments,  still  under  discussion  in  this 
period,  was  finally  fixed  at  seven  (baptism,  confirma- 
tion, eucharist,  penance,  extreme  unction — marriage, 
ordination)  at  Council  of  Ferrara,  1439.  Transub- 
stantiation  was  accepted  as  the  doctrine  of  the  church, 
12 1 5,  and  the  cup  gradually  withdrawn  from  laity  to 
avoid  spilling  the  consecrated  wine.  To  avoid  losing 
the  consecrated  bread  the  wafer  was  adopted  instead 
of  bread  to  be  broken.  Infant  communion  ceased  in 
13th  century;  adoration  of  the  sacrament  by  prostra- 
tion at  elevation  of  the  host  was  ordained  by  the  pope 
12 1 7,  and  feast  of  Corpus  Christi  adopted  for  whole 
church  by  pope  1264.  By  end  of  period  private  masses 
became  a  source  of  serious  abuse.  Veneration  of  relics 
was  greatly  stimulated  by  the  crusades,  all  sorts  of 
relics  brought  from  Palestine :  holy  lance,  Holy  Grail, 
holy  coats,  bodies  of  the  three  kings,  true  cross,  tooth 
of  Jesus,  etc.  The  fraudulent  trade  in  relics  became 
so  great  that  the  popes  made  efforts  to  restrain  it. 
Likewise  the  adoration  of  saints.  Mary  was  now  de- 
clared by  many  scholars  to  have  been  sinless  from 
conception,  practically  deified  and  made  the  intercessor 
between  men  and  her  Son.  Her  name  was  inserted  in 
the  liturgy,  and  the  ave  Maria  with  rosary  began  to 
come  into  use  in  nth  century,  while  the  Feast  of  the 
Immaculate  Conception  arose.  All  these  views  were 
vigorously  opposed,  and  were  not  adopted  for  the 
entire  church  at  this  time.  From  12th  century  the 
right  to  canonise  was  entirely  in  hands  of  pope;  hence 
all  new  saints,  of  whom  there  were  many,  were  for  the 


i62  A   GUIDE  TO   THE   STUDY 

entire  church.  Church  music  was  considerably  de- 
veloped, especially  among  Germans,  and  many  noble 
hymns  in  Latin  were  written  by  Abelard,  Bernard, 
Adam  of  St.  Victor,  Aquinas,  Thomas  of  Celano  {Dies 
irae  1260)  and  Jacopone  da  Todi,  d.  1306  (Stabat 
mater  dolorosa). 

Church  architecture  developed  wonderfully  in  this 
period ;  enormous  stone  structures  of  wonderful  beauty 
and  impressiveness.  The  romanesque,  in  12th  century 
greatly  developed  by  Normans,  was  massive,  with 
round  arches,  enormous  columns,  vaulted  roof,  massive 
towers,  ornamented  with  plants,  animals  and  geometric 
figures  (Durham  Cathedral) ;  followed  by  the  Gothic 
in  13th  and  14th  centuries,  characterized  by  pointed 
arches,  slender  and  lofty  columns,  tall  and  beautiful 
windows,  ornamented  externally  by  hideous  figures 
symbolizing  triumph  over  powers  of  darkness 
(Cologne  and  Strasburg  cathedrals).  In  13th  century 
both  statuary  and  painting  began  to  develop  and  were 
put  at  the  service  of  worship  more  largely. 

Closely  associated  with  worship  was  the  system  of 
confession,  penance  and  indulgences,  which  was  fully 
developed  before  end  of  this  period.  The  church 
always  required  public  confession  of  gross  public  sins, 
and  had  long  insisted  on  the  private  confession  of  such 
(mortal)  hidden  sins  to  a  priest  in  order  that  he  might 
fix  the  penalty.  Gradually  the  view  developed  that  all 
sins  must  be  confessed  to  a  priest,  and  4th  Lateran 
Council  (1215)  declared  that  every  Christian  must 
confess  all  his  sins  at  least  once  a  year  to  his  own  priest, 
who  should  impose  penalties  and  absolve  the  penitent. 
Up  to  beginning  of  the  13th  century  absolution  was  in 


OF   CHURCH   HISTORY  163 

the  form  of  a  prayer  by  the  priest;  then  it  became 
declarative,  "I  absolve  thee."  This  was  thought  to 
remove  the  guilt  of  sin  and  save  from  eternal  punish- 
ment; but  not  from  temporal  penalties  in  this  life  and 
in  purgatory.  These  could,  however,  be  greatly  mini- 
mized by  indulgences,  granted  at  first  by  all  bishops, 
but  later  claimed  as  the  exclusive  prerogative  of  popes. 
By  payment  of  money  or  performance  of  designated 
tasks  one  could  procure  removal  of  part  or  even 
(rarely)  all  temporal  penalties  of  sin  for  one's  self  or 
another.  In  case  of  punishment  in  purgatory  this  re- 
mission was  accomplished  by  the  transfer  by  the  church 
of  some  of  the  superabundant  good  works  of  Christ 
and  the  saints  to  the  needy  souls  in  purgatory  for  whom 
payment  had  been  made.  This  view  was  completed  by 
the  scholastics  of  the  13th  century. 

Other  methods  of  discipline  were  excommunication, 
ban  and  interdict,  which  were  often  used  by  the  pope 
for  purely  political  purposes. 

IV.     Opposition  to  the  Church — The  Sects 

S.  V.  Part  I.  78-87;  K.  Sees.  108,  109;  N.  i.  541-81;  M.  ii.  382- 
403;  H.  i.  823-49;  A.  ii.  233-8;  Newman,  Anti-Pedobaptism, 
chaps.  Ill  and  IV. 

The  unity  of  the  western  church,  well  nigh  com- 
plete for  four  or  five  centuries,  begins  to  break  up  in 
nth  and  12th  centuries.  Possible  sources  of  these 
sects  were,  ( i )  possible  persistence  of  primitive  Chris- 
tianity, but  this  has  not  been  traced;  (2)  probable  per- 
sistence of  earlier  sects,  especially  Manicheans;  (3) 
revival  of  religion  and  Bible  study  within  the  Catholic 
Church.    The  latter  is  by  far  the  most  probable  source, 


i64  A   GUIDE  TO   THE   STUDY 

especially  of  the  evangelical  sects,  since  their  leaders 
all  came  out  of  the  Catholic  Church.  In  S.  France,  in 
the  Netherlands  and  along  the  Rhine  there  was  in  the 
last  half  of  nth  and  throughout  12th  and  first  half  of 
'13th  centuries  tremendous  opposition  to  the  Catholic 
Church,  its  doctrines,  practices,  worship  and  organiza- 
tion. This  opposition  took  many  forms,  sometimes 
remaining  in  the  church,  more  frequently  separating 
from  it;  sometimes  remaining  unorganized,  again 
reaching  an  organization;  overlapping,  merging,  until 
it  is  often  impossible  to  distinguish  the  various  parties 
historically.  Only  a  few  of  the  more  important  forms 
can  be  noticed ;  for  information  concerning  these  sects 
we  are  largely  dependent  on  the  records  of  the  Inquisi- 
tion of  13th  century;  they  wrote  little  or  nothing  them- 
selves, or  their  writings  have  perished. 

1.  Cathari.  (Albanenses,  Albigenses,  etc.)  a  num- 
erous party  or  parties,  with  many  internal  differences, 
found  chiefly  in  S.  E.  France,  from  about  1000  on  until 
their  extermination  by  crusade  (1208-29).  The  ma- 
jority of  them  were  dualists,  rejected  marriage  (for  the 
elect)  and  Old  Testament,  held  docetic  views  of  the 
body  of  Christ,  emphasized  laying  on  of  hands  for  the 
gift  of  the  Spirit,  rejected  baptism  and  the  supper, 
divided  their  adherents  into  believers  and  elect  or  per- 
fect.    (See  Key  of  Truth.) 

2.  More  evangelical  were  the  Petrobnisians  and 
Henricans,  founded  by  Peter  of  Bruys,  Catholic  priest, 
burned  1126,  and  Henry  of  Lausanne,  monk  and 
deacon,  d.  1148.  They  preached  evangelical  doctrines 
throughout  S.  E.  France  with  great  power  and  effect; 
rejected  tradition,  holding  to  the  Scriptures  alone;  re- 


OF  CHURCH  HISTORY  165 

jected  infant  baptism,  practicing  believer's  baptism; 
denied  transubstantiation,  all  works  for  the  dead,  ven- 
eration of  the  cross,  relics,  etc. ;  opposed  consecrated 
buildings,  holding  that  God  can  be  worshipped  in  one 
place  as  well  as  another.  (Poor  Men  of  Lyons,  Poor 
Men  of  Lombardy,  etc.) 

3.  Waldenses  were  founded  by  Peter  Waldo, 
wealthy  merchant  of  Lyons,  about  11 70.  They  re- 
mained a  body  of  laymen  in  Catholic  Church  till  1 184 
when  they  were  excommunicated  and  became  hostile 
to  the  church,  spreading  rapidly  over  S.  France,  N. 
Italy,  into  Spain,  Germany  and  Austria,  absorbing  and 
carrying  on  the  work  of  some  of  the  earlier  sects. 
They  preached  and  taught  the  Bible  in  the  vernacular, 
made  vernacular  versions  of  the  Bible,  sought  to  re- 
produce the  life  of  Christ  on  earth,  rejected  transub- 
stantiation, infant  baptism  (?),  purgatory  and  all  its 
related  doctrines,  veneration  of  saints,  relics,  miracles, 
etc.,  refused  to  take  oath,  opposed  capital  punishment, 
magistracy  and  war.  They  were  divided  into  perfect 
and  disciples,  and  their  women  also  taught.  The  offi- 
cers, taken  from  the  perfect,  renounced  property  and 
marriage;  they  were  superintendent,  presbyters  and 
deacons.  This  body,  at  its  annual  meeting,  transacted 
all  business  of  the  society,  sending  out  missionaries, 
exercising  discipline,  etc.  They  were  terribly  perse- 
cuted by  the  Inquisition  from  beginning  of  13th  century 
on,  but  were  able  to  preserve  an  existence,  and  now 
constitute  the  bulk  of  the  evangelicals  in  Italy ;  modern 
Waldenses  are  substantially  Presbyterians. 

There  were  many  other  individuals  or  parties  hold- 
ing views  more  or  less   evangelical  throughout   the 


i66  A   GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 

later  Middle  Ages.     To  meet  this  rising  tide  of  oppo- 
sition there  was  organized 

4.  The  Inquisition.  (N.  i.  463-9;  Lea,  Hist,  of 
Inqui.  of  the  Mid.  Ages,  3  vols.  His.  Inqui.  in  Spain 
and  Dependencies,  5  vols.)  Heresy  was  regarded  as  a 
mortal  sin,  a  heinous  crime.  It  had  long  been  the  duty 
of  bishops  to  seek  out  heretics,  who  had  in  some  cases 
been  put  to  death.  The  rapid  increase  of  heresy  in 
1 2th  century  led  to  a  more  systematic  effort  to  sup- 
press it,  both  by  preaching  and  by  force.  The  Third 
Lateran  Council  (1179)  required  systematic  persecu- 
tion of  heretics  by  episcopal  courts;  laymen  were 
sworn  to  inform  on  all  suspects,  and  bishops  were  re- 
quired to  proceed  against  them  on  pain  of  deposition. 
The  Fourth  Lateran  Council  (121 5)  required  secular 
rulers  to  confiscate  the  goods  of  condemned  heretics 
and  to  execute  them  on  pain  of  being  themselves  ex- 
communicated, deposed  and  deprived  of  their  property. 
All  who  protected  heretics  fell  under  the  ban,  and  all 
suspects  must  clear  themselves  within  a  year  or  be 
treated  as  heretics.  In  1233  the  Inquisition  was  made 
a  special  department  of  papal  government  and  given 
to  the  Dominicans  (Domini  canes),  who  proceeded 
ruthlessly.  Confiscated  property  was  divided  with  in- 
formers, the  accused  was  not  permitted  to  know  his 
accusers  or  the  witnesses,  who  were  often  disreputable; 
torture  was  used  to  wring  out  confessions,  etc.  The 
effectiveness  of  the  Inquisition  depended  upon  the  sub- 
servience of  secular  rulers.  In  Latin  countries  (France, 
Italy,  Spain)  it  was  effective,  thousands  of  people 
being  put  to  death;  in  Teutonic  countries  it  was  less 
effective,   but   many   perished.      Its    operations   were 


OF   CHURCH   HISTORY  167 

exterrded  to  witches,  Jews  and  Saracens  in  13th  century. 
Its  results  were  frightful. 

V.     Learning  and  Literature — Universities 

S.   V.    Part   I.   88-94;    N.    i.   469-74;    H.    i.   935-49;   Rashdall, 
Universities  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

Monastic  and  cathedral  schools  of  the  earlier  Middle 
Ages  grew  into  universities  in  latter  part  of  this  period. 
The  trivium  (grammar,  rhetoric,  logic)  and  the  qiiad- 
rivium  (music,  arithmetic,  geometry,  astronomy)  of 
the  older  schools  were  enlarged  into  corporations  for 
teaching  practically  all  knowledge.  These  enjoyed  self- 
government  and  many  other  privileges,  granted  by 
popes  and  temporal  rulers.  They  began  to  be  organ- 
ized about  beginning  of  13th  century.  Bologna  11 58, 
Montpelier  1180,  Paris,  Oxford  and  Salerno  c.  1200, 
■  eight  more  in  13th,  twenty  in  14th,  twenty  in  15th  and 
two  in  1 6th  centuries.  Paris  was  noted  for  theology 
(Sorbonne),  Bologna  for  law,  Salerno  for  medicine. 
There  was  really  no  investigation  in  these  earlier  years, 
but  rather  preservation,  disputation  and  instruction. 

There  was  a  mass  of  literature,  all  of  it  Christian, 
most  of  it  theological  and  ecclesiastical.  Latin  was  the 
language  of  learning  and  serious  literature.  A  ver- 
nacular literature  began  to  appear  in  France,  Germany, 
England  and  especially  Italy,  where  a  native  literature 
is  to  blaze  out  so  splendidly  in  the  next  period. 


i68  A  GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 


FOURTH  PERIOD— 1305  TO  15 17 

A.     Oriental  Christianity 

I.     Political  Conditions 

This  period  marks  end  of  Empire.  On  the  break  up 
of  the  Seljouk  sultanate  of  Iconium  (end  13th  cent.) 
Othman  estabhshed  himself  as  an  emir  in  N.  W.  Asia 
Minor.  He  gradually  enlarged  and  organized  his  ter- 
ritory, at  expense  of  other  emirs  and  the  Empire.  He 
was  founder  of  the  Ottoman  Turks  (named  from  him) 
and  the  modern  Turkish  empire.  In  1326  they  reached 
the  Sea  of  Marmora,  whence  they  had  been  driven  by 
the  Crusaders  in  1097;  Nicomedia  taken  1327,  Nicaea 
1333,  and  all  remaining  Asiatic  territory  very  rapidly. 

A  usurper,  John  Cantacuzenus,  called  to  his  aid  in 
struggle  for  the  throne  of  the  Empire,  the  Servians 
(c.  1345),  under  Stephen  Dushan,  who  rapidly  over- 
ran Albania,  Macedonia,  and  N.  Greece,  rending  them 
finally  from  the  Empire;  by  1346  he  had  established  a 
great  Slavic  power  and  had  himself  crowned  "Czar  of 
Servians  and  Greeks."  On  his  death  the  Servian  king- 
dom rapidly  dissolved. 

John  also  called  into  Europe  the  Turks,  who  harried 
Thrace  into  desolation,  and  a  little  later  seized  Gallipoli 
for  permanent  settlement,  their  first  permanent  foot- 
hold in  S.  E.  Europe  (c.  1354) ;  Murad  I  began  occu- 
pation of  Europe  on  his  accession  in  1359,  captured 


OF  CHURCH   HISTORY  169 

Adrianople  1361,  which  he  made  his  capital,  leaving  to 
the  Empire  only  Constantinople,  Thessalonica  and  the 
Peloponnesus.  Henceforth  the  Empire  existed  only  in 
name;  Thessalonica  was  taken  1430,  and  finally  Con- 
stantinople, May  29,  1453,  bringing  the  Empire  to  an 
end;  Constantinople  became  capital  of  the  Turkish 
empire. 

In  the  meantime  the  Turks  had  subdued  Servia,  Bul- 
garia, most  of  Greece  and  Albania;  by  end  of  period 
Turks  held  practically  all  the  Balkan  Peninsula  and  all 
the  islands  of  the  ^gean,  had  fought  with  the  Hun- 
garians beyond  the  Danube,  and  had  subdued  Persia, 
Syria,  Egypt;  and  1577  Suleiman  I  assumed  the 
guardianship  of  Mecca,  thus  proclaiming  himself  suc- 
cessor of  the  caliphs  and  spiritual  head  of  Islam,  a 
position  which  has  been  held  by  the  Sultan  of  Turkey 
to  the  present  time. 

11.     Christianity 

1.  The  various  heretical  churches  (Jacobite,  Nesto- 
rian,  Armenian,  etc.)  remained  under  Mohammedan 
rule  without  change  of  conditions  except  as  the  Turks 
were  more  barbarous  and  brutal  than  the  Arabs. 

2.  Orthodox  Church.  There  was  no  change  as  to 
doctrine,  organization  or  worship;  theological  culture 
gradually  decays ;  Church  remains  subservient  to  im- 
perial government  to  its  end,  but  does  not  decay  with 
empire. 

"Union"  of  Greek  and  Roman  churches  was  greatly 
desired  by  popes,  and  by  Byzantine  government  to 
secure  western  help  against  Turks.  At  Council  of  Lyons, 
1274,  union  was  proclaimed,  but  nothing  came  of  it; 


I70  A  GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 

negotiations  continued;  at  Council  of  Florence,  1439, 
the  emperor  and  other  delegates  being  present,  union 
on  paper  again  effected.  It  obtained  no  western  help 
and  was  rejected  by  Eastern  Church  which  preferred 
Turk  to  Roman  Catholic.    No  union  attempts  since. 

3.  The  Turks  were  more  barbarous  and  intolerant 
than  the  Arabs  had  been.  Crushing  taxation  and  other 
hardships,  loss  of  all  civil  rights  (but  no  religious  perse- 
cution) now  extended  to  all  Asia  and  S.  E.  Europe, 
did  not  destroy  the  Church.  Its  worship  was  permitted, 
but  its  wealth  and  churches  were  confiscated ;  its  culture, 
literature  and  schools  destroyed;  conversion  to  Chris- 
tianity forbidden;  preaching  ceased,  priesthood  sank 
into  insignificance,  spiritual  and  intellectual  stagnation. 
The  most  cruel  exaction  was  the  tithe  of  boys  (one  in 
five)  taken  young,  trained  in  Mohammedanism  as 
soldiers,  constituting  the  famous  Janizaries;  begun 
1329,  discontinued  1676.  Under  this  terrible  oppres- 
sion many  Christians  became  Mohammedan  but  most 
held  out.  The  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  appointed 
or  confirmed  by  the  Sultan,  often  unworthy,  was  made 
head  of  the  Church  in  the  Turkish  domain  and  repre- 
sentative of  his  people  before  the  Turks. 

4.  Russian  Church  continues  to  make  progress  in 
this  period.  The  three  outstanding  events  are  ( i )  its 
steady  opposition  to  union  with  Roman  Catholics;  (2) 
unification  of  all  Russians  by  Ivan  III  (1462-1505),  as 
Tzar  of  a  new  empire  succeeding  the  Byzantine;  (3) 
expulsion  of  the  Mongols,  c.  1500,  after  three  cen- 
turies of  subjection.  Some  Greek  scholars  fled  thither 
from  Constantinople  but  caused  no  Renaissance;  reli- 
gious differences  prevented  any  help  or  stimulus  from 


OF   CHURCH   HISTORY  171 

the  West.  The  Church  had  improved  Russian  char- 
acter, causing  abandonment  of  polygamy,  decrease  of 
cruelty,  improvement  in  law,  some  refinement  of  public 
and  private  life.  But  the  Russians  were  still  very 
superstitious,  ignorant,  immoral. 


172  A   GUIDE  TO   THE   STUDY 


B.     Western  Christianity 

I.     Political  History 

I.  The  Empire — The  Empire  never  recovered  from 
the  confusion  following  death  of  Frederick  II  (1250). 
Italy  never  again  acknowledged  its  sovereignty;  occa- 
sionally an  emperor  was  crowned  at  Rome,  but  exer- 
cised no  authority.  In  Germany  decay  of  central 
authority  caused  rise  of  Hanseatic  League  in  the  North 
(1241),  League  of  the  Rhine  a  little  later,  feudal 
castles,  etc. ;  private  war  and  robbery  universal.  War 
between  Frederick  of  Austria  and  Louis  of  Bavaria, 
struggling  for  the  crown,  broke  out  13 14,  lasting  ten 
years.  At  its  conclusion  Pope  John  XXII  sought  to 
depose  Louis.  This  led  to  vigorous  literary  war,  in 
which  Louis  and  the  Germans  maintained  that  the 
emperor  received  the  imperial  dignity  not  from  the 
popes,  but  the  German  electors  (1338) ;  Defensor  Pads 
by  Marsihus  of  Padua;  this  repudiation  of  the  pope's 
authority  was  confirmed  by  the  Golden  Bull  in  1356, 
fixing  the  number  and  rights  of  electors  (Henderson, 
pp.  220-61 ;  43 7f).  The  confusion  continued  through 
most  of  the  14th  and  15th  centuries. 

The  Swiss  cantons,  beginning  with  the  union  of 
three  (Uri,  Schweiz,  Unterwalden)  in  1291,  gradually 
built  up  a  confederacy  which  was  able  to  drive  off  the 
Austrians  on  the  East  (Morgarten  13 15,  Sempach 
1386),  and  the  Burgundians  under  Charles  the  Bold 
on  the  West  (Granson  1476,  Nancy  1477). 


OF   CHURCH   HISTORY  173 

Before  end  of  period  most  of  Hungary  and  much  of 
Poland  had  been  overrun  by  the  Turks  who  passed  up 
the  Danube  after  capture  of  Constantinople.  Maxi- 
milian I  (1493-15 19),  the  last  emperor  of  the  period, 
was  stronger  than  his  predecessors,  but  was  able  to 
accomplish  little  for  the  reform  of  the  empire. 

2.  Italy.  The  decline  of  the  empire  and  the  Baby- 
lonian captivity  of  the  popes  left  Italy  without  any 
central  authority.  Strife  between  Guelphs  and  Ghi- 
belHnes  continued.  Anarchy  prevailed,  cities  and  classes 
fighting  with  each  other.  Gradually  five  states  arose, 
establishing  semblance  of  order:  kingdom  of  Naples, 
duchy  of  Milan,  repubhcs  of  Florence  and  Venice,  and 
the  papal  state.  Sicily  and  Naples  were  reunited  1435 
under  Spanish  prince.  Florence  from  1378  was  ruled 
by  the  Medici,  a  rich  merchant  family,  but  under  re- 
publican forms.  The  Romans  attempted  ineffectually 
to  establish  old  Roman  republic  under  Rienzi  (1347- 
54).  In  1494  Charles  VIII  of  France,  in  order  to 
recover  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  invaded  Italy;  this 
began  the  rivalry  of  France  and  Spain  for  the  control 
of  Italy  which  caused  much  bloodshed  down  to  19th 
century. 

3.  France.  The  socalled  "hundred  years  war" 
(1337-1453)  was  caused  by  the  desire  of  the  French 
to  drive  the  English  off  the  continent  and  the  desire  of 
the  English  to  retain  their  land  and  take  the  French 
crown.  (i)  From  1337-60.  English  successful. 
Crecy  1346,  Poitiers  1356.  By  treaty  of  Bretigne 
(1360)  the  Enghsh  secured  the  province  of  Aquitaine 
with  other  lands,  renounced  their  claims  to  French 
throne  and  all  lands  north  of  Loire  and  released  the 


174  A  GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 

captive  king  on  payment  of  a  ransom.  A  terrible 
revolt  in  Paris  and  among  peasants  1356-8.  (2)  To 
Peace  of  Troyes,  1420.  War  soon  broke  out  again, 
and  was  at  first  favorable  to  France.  The  imbecility 
of  Charles  VI  caused  division  in  France,  the  northern 
portion  (Burgundy)  favoring  the  English,  the  south- 
ern portion  (Armagnacs)  favoring  the  French  king. 
At  Agincourt  141 5  Henry  V  of  England  completely 
defeated  Armagnacs.  By  treaty  of  Troyes  he  mar- 
ried a  daughter  of  Charles  VI  of  France,  was  recog- 
nized as  regent  of  France,  to  be  king  after  death  of 
Charles.  (3)  To  end,i^SZ-  Both  kings  died  (1422), 
and  Charles  VII  was  crowned  king  of  France  south  of 
Loire.  Joan  of  Arc  (1429)  turned  fortunes  of  France. 
In  1435  Duke  of  Burgundy  was  reconciled  to  the  king 
of  France,  and  the  English  were  rapidly  driven  out 
until  1453  they  held  only  Calais,  which  they  held  till 
1558.  France  was  desolated,  but  rapidly  recovered. 
Burgundy  and  other  great  duchies  were  won  for  the 
king  until  at  close  of  period  it  was  a  strong  and  well 
organized  government. 

4.  England  was  engaged  with  France  during  the 
Hundred  Years  War.  In  1371  Scotland  gained  com- 
plete independence  under  the  house  of  Stuart.  Fre- 
quent struggles  with  the  nobility.  Wars  of  the  Roses 
(1459-85)  between  the  houses  of  York  and  Lancaster, 
a  war  of  the  nobility  which  was  almost  destroyed,  leav- 
ing the  king  supreme  and  England  strongly  centralized 
at  end  of  period. 

5.  Spanish  Peninsula.  The  kingdoms  of  Castile 
and  Aragon  continued  separate  but  gained  upon  the 
Moors  in  South  until  they  were  completely  overthrown 


OF   CHURCH   HISTORY  175 

in  1492.  The  marriage  of  Ferdinand  of  Aragon  and 
Isabella  of  Castile  prepared  the  way  for  the  union  of 
these  two  kingdoms  under  Charles  I.  The  southern 
part  of  Navarre  was  annexed  to  Aragon  15 12.  The 
''Spanish"  Inquisition  stamped  out  all  internal  dis- 
orders, the  church  was  reformed.  There  were  dis- 
coveries by  Italians  in  Spanish  service  (Columbus, 
Amerigo  Vespucci),  by  Spaniards  (Balboa),  by  Portu- 
guese (Vasco  de  Gama,  Cobral,  Magellan).  Spain  is 
rapidly  becoming  the  leading  nation  of  Europe  at  close 
of  period. 

7.  Scandinavian  Countries.  Denmark,  Sweden, 
and  Norway  united  in  Union  of  Colmar  (1397)  under 
an  elective  king.  There  was  considerable  friction  and 
one  dissolution  of  the  Union,  but  it  was  restored  and 
still  existed  at  end  of  period. 

II.     External  History  of  the  Church 

N.  i.  523-40;  K.  Sec.  no;  A.  ii.  265-78;  H.  i.  778-86;  S.  v.  ii. 
I -18;  48-56. 

The  political  power  of  the  papacy  sinks  rapidly  to 
end  of  period. 

I.  Babylonian  Captivity,  1309-78.  French  influ- 
ence on  the  papacy,  increasing  for  some  time,  culminates 
in  complete  domination  in  1309.  Benedict  XI  recalled 
most  of  the  action  of  Boniface  VIII  against  Philip 
of  France.  The  next  pope,  Clement  V,  a  Frenchman, 
never  left  the  country  after  his  election  1305,  settling 
at  Avignon  on  border  of  France,  1309.  Popes  now 
completely  under  French  influence;  the  papal  court 
luxurious  and  corrupt,  cf.  Petrarch.  Finally  after 
much  outside  pressure  the  pope  returned  to  Rome  1378, 


176  A  GUIDE  TO  THE  STUDY 

having  lost  tremendously  in  political  power  and  moral 
influence. 

2.  Great  Schism  1378-141 7.  There  had  been  many 
schisms  before,  but  this  is  the  most  serious  in  papal 
history.  Urban  VI,  unanimously  elected  at  Rome, 
soon  alienated  the  French  cardinals,  who,  constituting 
two  thirds  of  the  college,  declared  the  former  election 
void,  and  elected  Clement  VII,  who  retired  to  Avignon. 
He  was  supported  by  France,  Naples,  Savoy,  Castile, 
Aragon,  Navarre,  Scotland  and  Lorraine.  The  rest 
of  the  Catholic  world  supported  the  Roman  pope.  The 
strife  was  ruinous  to  all  religious  interests;  popes 
banned  each  other,  orders  divided,  universities  fought 
each  other.  Public  opinion  finally  forced  the  two 
colleges  of  cardinals  together,  against  protest  of  both 
popes,  to  call  the  Council  of  Pisa  (1409),  which  de- 
posed both  and  elected  another,  Alexander  V.  This 
action  was  repudiated  by  the  popes  and  some  princes, 
and  the  result  was  three  popes,  each  supported*  by 
various  nations.  Alexander  was  succeeded  in  1410  by 
John  XXIII,  a  profligate.  Forced  by  public  opinion, 
he  called  Council  of  Constance  (141 4- 18)  to  (i)  heal 
schism,  (2)  put  down  heresy,  and  (3)  reform  church 
in  head  and  members.  Largest  and  most  brilliant 
council  in  history;  voted  by  nations  (Italian,  French, 
German,  English) ;  declared  supreme  authority  to 
rest  in  council  rather  than  pope.  Its  leading  acts  were 
as  follows:  (i)  John  and  Benedict  XIII  (Avignon) 
were  deposed,  Gregory  XII  (Rome)  persuaded  to  re- 
sign, and  Martin  V  elected,  thus  securing  one  pope 
recognized  by  all  nations  and  closing  the  schism 
(1417);  (2)  John  Huss  and  Jerome  of  Prague  were 


OF  CHURCH  HISTORY  17; 

condemned  and  burned,  John  Wycliffe's  bones  ordered 
dug  up  and  burned  (this  done  1429),  Bohemia  put 
under  ban;  (3)  little  done  for  reform. 

3.  Papacy  from  1418-1517.  Indignation  at  treat- 
ment of  Huss  and  Jerome  led  majority  of  Bohemians 
to  revolt  against  the  Church;  known  as  Hussites;  two 
parties:  (i)  Utraquists  or  Calixtines,  the  moderates 
who  demanded  the  cup  for  the  laity,  made  Scripture 
the  supreme  authority  in  faith  and  morals,  but  retained 
most  Catholic  doctrines;  (2)  Taborites,  radicals,  who 
rejected  everything  not  expressly  authorized  in  Scrip- 
ture, e.  g.,  transubstantiation,  veneration  of  saints, 
images  and  relics,  a  special  priesthood,  holy  days  and 
places,  etc.,  led  by  Ziska. 

The  two  parties  united  in  demanding  of  the  em- 
peror (a)  free  preaching  of  the  word  in  Bohemia,  (b)" 
cup  in  communion,  (c)  apostolic  poverty  and  life 
among  the  clergy,  and  (d)  Church  discipline.  This 
provoked  Hussite  wars  (1420-31);  various  crusading 
expeditions  repulsed  ( 1420-6) ;  then  Bohemians  invaded 
surrounding  German  states  to  compel  peace;  frightful 
destruction  (1427-31).  Council  of  Basel  (1431-49), 
called  to  heal  the  schism,  granted  them  (1433)  the 
Compactata  of  Prague,  i.  e.,  the  cup,  and  the  other 
demands  somewhat  modified.  The  Taborites  rejected 
the  concessions,  thus  precipitating  civil  war  among 
Hussites ;  Taborites  were  defeated  and  scattered  by  the 
Utraquists  and  Catholics  (1434) ;  Utraquists  were  able 
to  maintain  their  freedom  until  absorbed  by  Lutheran 
movement  in  i6th  century,  though  efforts  were  fre- 
quently made  to  suppress  them.  Remnants  of  Tabor- 
ites with  like-minded  men  formed  in  E.  Bohemia  c. 


178  A   GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 

1467  ''Society  of  Brethren"  {Unitas  fratnim),  later 
known  as  ''Bohemian"  or  "Moravian  Brethren"  ;  closely 
allied  with  Waldenses ;  rejected  oaths,  war,  civil  office ; 
sought  to  imitate  Christ;  they,  too,  were  largely  ab- 
sorbed by  the  Lutheran  movement. 

The  Council  of  Basel,  bent  on  reforms  in  the  morals 
and  financial  transactions  of  the  papacy,  was  dissolved 
by  pope;  refusing  to  disband  it  was  formally  recog- 
nized by  him  1433 ;  1437  he  attempted  to  transfer  it 
to  Italy  but  the  majority  continued  in  session,  deposed 
Pope  Eugenius  IV  and  elected  Felix  V;  its  reforms 
were  adopted  by  French  government  in  Pragmatic 
Sanction  of  Bourges  1438  and  by  German  Diet  1439; 
finally  dissolved  at  Lausanne  1449. 

Meanwhile  the  pope  had  assembled  a  Council  at 
Ferrara  1438,  transferred  it  to  Florence  1439  where 
a  paper  union  with  Greek  Church  was  effected;  never 
carried  out  at  Constantinople. 

Beginning  with  Nicholas  V  (1447-55),  the  founder 
of  the  Vatican  library,  the  popes  for  nearly  a  century 
were  the  leading  patrons  of  the  new  learning,  human- 
ists. Pius  II  is  an  excellent  example.  Alexander  VI 
(1492-1503),  a  monster  of  wickedness,  divided  the 
new  world  between  Spanish  and  Portuguese.  Julius  II 
(1503-13),  a  warrior,  restored  the  papal  state.  Leo  X 
(1513-21),  son  of  Lorenzo  Medici,  a  humanist,  patron 
of  art,  without  religion,  was  on  the  papal  throne  at 
outbreak  of  Reformation. 

III.     Inner  Life  of  the  Church 

I.  Theology.  (K.  Sees.  113,  114;  A.  ii.  284-7; 
S.  v.  ii.  19-26.)    ^As  we  turn  into  the  14th  century 


OF   CHURCH   HISTORY  179 

theological  learning  rapidly  decays.  Scholasticism 
degenerates  into  hair-splitting  in  questions  of  casu- 
istry and  about  unimportant  matters.  Nominalism 
rises  again  in  William  of  Occam  and  is  triumphant 
in  15th  century.  Duns  Scotus,  +1308,  his  pupil 
Occam,  ti349j  Nicholas  of  Cusa,  •f'1464.  One  of  the 
chief  subjects  of  controversy  was  the  immaculate  con- 
ception of  Mary.  There  was  little  progress  made  in 
these  two  centuries  in  the  development  of  doctrines; 
creative  power  was  gone. 

A  new  type  of  theology  is  found  in  the  mystics 
(S.  V.  ii.  2y-^y)  of  14th  and  15th  centuries,  chiefly 
among  Dominicans  in  Germany  and  the  Netherlands. 
Abandoning  dialectics  and  logic,  they  sought  to  know 
God  by  direct  intuition,  through  contemplation  and 
feeling,  the  illumination  of  the  spirit.  They  preached 
in  the  vernacular  in  a  popular  way  with  great  effective- 
ness. The  founder  was  Meister  Eckhart  (1260-1327), 
b.  at  Strasburg,  studied  under  Albert  the  Great;  be- 
came a  Dominican,  provincial  of  Saxony,  vicar-general 
of  Bohemia;  teacher  in  Paris,  Strasburg  and  Cologne; 
accused  of  pantheism.  John  Tauler  ( — 1361),  b.  at 
Strasburg,  pupil  of  Eckhart,  Dominican,  great  popular 
preacher.  Henry  Suso  (1295-1366),  pupil  of  Eckhart, 
Dominican,  writer.  Among  the  Dutch  were  John  of 
Ruysbroek  ( 1298- 1 381),  and  Thos.  a  Kempis  (1380- 
1471),  author  of  De  Imitatione  Christi.  Mysticism 
made  a  deep  impression  on  the  masses,  who  formed  lay 
brotherhoods  in  Germany,  the  Netherlands  and  else- 
where. 

2.  Worship.  (K.  Sec.  115;  A.  ii.  293-7;  S.  v.  ii. 
y2-y;  H.  i.  909-34.)     In  this  period  there  were  few 


i8o  A  GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 

great  preachers  and  little  preaching.  The  Mendicants, 
Aiigustinians  and  the  sects  did  some  preaching,  but 
there  appears  a  new  interest  in  the  Bible;  translations, 
Bible  histories,  picture  books,  catechisms,  sacred  plays, 
etc.,  which  disseminated  knowledge  of  the  gospel  among 
the  people.  Hymn  writing  in  Latin  decayed,  but  reap- 
peared in  the  vernacular.  Popular  and  congregational 
singing  appeared,  especially  among  the  flagellants,  Hus- 
sites and  other  sects.  Church  music  was  improved  by 
the  introduction  of  harmony.  Gothic  architecture  con- 
tinued to  prevail  in  Germany,  France  and  England, 
but  the  great  building  age  was  past.  In  Italy  Renais- 
sance architecture  arose  with  such  masters  as  Bramante 
and  Michael  Angelo  ( 1474- 1564).  Foundation  of  new 
St.  Peter's  laid  1506.  Sculpture  (Ghiberti,  ti455; 
Michael  Angelo,  f  1564)  and  painting  now  made  tre- 
mendous progress  and  were  largely  in  the  service  of 
the  church.  Four  schools:  (i)  Florentine  school, 
Giotto  \iZZ^y  Fra  Angelico  ti455»  Leonardo  da  Vinci 
f  1519,  Era  Bartolomeo  \iS^7y  Michael  Angelo  11564. 
(2)  Lombard  or  Venetian:  Bellini  f^S^^,  Corregio 
fi534,  Titian  ti576.  (3)  Umbrian:  Raphael  t^S^o 
and  others.  (4)  German:  The  Brothers  van  Eyk, 
Albert  Diirer  fiS^S,  and  Hans  Holbein,  Sr.,  11524. 

3.  Christian  Life.  (K.  Sec.  117;  S.  v.  ii.  77-80; 
A.  ii.  295.)  There  was  decline  in  morals;  a  tendency 
to  break  away  from  the  church;  a  revival  of  skep- 
ticism and  pagan  ideas  with  the  revival  of  the  classic 
pagan  literature.  The  traMc  in  indulgences  to  raise 
money  for  various  undertakings  became  a  universal 
scandal  and  well  nigh  destroyed  discipline.  The 
inquisition  was  used  without  mercy  against  heretics, 


OF  CHURCH  HISTORY  i8i 

especially  in  France  and  Spain.  The  Spanish  Inquisi- 
tion (Lea's  Hist.  Span.  Inq.),  organized  by  Ferdinand 
and  Isabella  (1480)  was,  under  Torquemada  (1483- 
99)  and  Ximines  (1507-17),  the  most  terrible  tribunal 
in  history.  It  was  directed  specially  against  Moors  and 
Jews,  converted  by  force  and  then  suspected  of  apos- 
tasy (Moriscos) ;  thousands  perished.  It  did  not  appear 
in  Germany  till  1386,  and  never  with  effectiveness  in 
England.  Persecution  of  witches  was  even  worse  than 
that  of  heretics.  The  church  discouraged  belief  in 
witches  till  c.  1200.  Then  the  belief  grew  rapidly  and 
was  encouraged  by  the  church.  In  1484  the  pope  called 
attention  to  the  spread  of  witchcraft,  and  appointed 
special  inquisition  for  its  suppression.  The  terrible 
work  of  destruction  continued  among  Catholics,  and 
after  the  Reformation,  among  Protestants  till  the  be- 
ginning of  1 8th  century.  It  is  supposed  that  as  many 
as  300,000  women  perished,  most  of  them  at  the  stake. 
The  morals  of  the  clergy  (A.  ii.  288-92),  monks 
and  nuns  were  low.  Many  prelates  lived  in  open  con- 
cubinage and  allowed  the  lower  clergy  to  do  so,  while 
unnatural  sin  was  not  uncommon.  Monasteries  were 
rich,  monks  idle  and  debased.  Franciscans  and  Domin- 
icans ceased  to  be  mendicant,  continually  quarreled 
over  the  immaculate  conception,  while  the  strict  part 
of  the  Franciscans  were  declared  to  be  heretical  and 
persecuted.  The  Knights  Templars  were  dissolved 
131 1  on  a  charge  of  heresy,  sorcery  and  vice,  their 
great  possessions  being  largely  appropriated  by  the 
princes,  their  leaders  burned  as  heretics.  Historians 
are  divided  as  to  their  guilt.  Several  new  orders  of 
monks  and  nuns  arose. 


i82  A  GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 

An  interesting  feature  of  the  religious  life  of  this 
period  is  the  formation  of  lay  brotherhoods  for  the 
cultivation  of  the  spiritual  life.  Several  of  the  monas- 
tic orders  found  associated  organizations  of  laymen, 
e.  g.,  Cistercians;  others  are  brothers  and  sisters  of 
the  free  spirit  (pantheistic),  apostolic  brethren  c.  1300, 
friends  of  God  c.  1380;  the  most  important  was  the 
Brothers  of  the  Common  Life,  founded  c.  1382  in  the 
Netherlands,  a  society  of  pious  priests  and  laymen, 
holding  Catholic  doctrines,  but  devoted  to  Bible  study, 
mystical  contemplation,  preaching,  teaching,  pastoral 
service,  supporting  themselves  by  labor.  Thomas  a 
Kempis.  This  movement  unconsciously  prepared  the 
way  for  the  Reformation.  Missionary  labor  practi- 
cally ceased  in  this  period. 

IV.     Signs  and  Helps  to  a  New  Age 

K.    Sec.    118-20;   H.   ii.    1-114. 

1.  Use  of  Gunpowder  imported  from  East,  c.  mid- 
dle 13th  century,  completely  changing  the  character 
of  war  and  putting  peasant  on  equality  with  knight  in 
battle. 

2.  Invention  of  Mariner^s  Compass^  c.  13 10,  by 
Flavio  Giorja  of  Amalfi,  making  it  possible  to  launch 
out  on  the  high  seas  with  safety. 

3.  Invention  of  Printing,  c.  1450,  by  John  Guten- 
berg, in  Mainz;  and  paper,  making  books  cheap  and 
plentiful.    Latin  Bible  first  printed  book,  1455. 

4.  Discoveries  on  earth  and  in  the  heavens  broke  up 
men's  fundamental  conceptions  of  things  and  prepared 
the  way  for  religious  changes.  Discovery  of  America, 
1492,  sea  route  to  India,  1498,  Brazil,  1500,  Pacific 


OF   CHURCH   HISTORY  183 

Ocean,  15 13.  Magellan  sails  around  earth,  1519-22. 
Copernicus  (1473-1543)  discovered  the  true  view  of 
the  solar  system. 

5.  The  rise  of  a  Vernacular  Literature  in  prose 
and  poetry,  which  reached  the  people  as  well  as  the 
learned :  ( i )  In  Italy  are  three  great  men,  all  of  Flor- 
ence— Dante  (1265-1321)  wrote  in  Italian,  "The 
Divine  Comedy,"  and  in  Latin  De  Monarchia;  Petrarch 
(1304-74),  lyric  poet  and  letter  writer,  reviver  of 
classical  studies;  Boccaccio  (1313-75),  writer  of  prose, 
some  of  it  pagan  in  morals.  All  three  were  more  or 
less  hostile  to  the  church,  while  the  first  two  held  firmly 
to  Christian  doctrines  and  ethics.  (2)  In  Germany  the 
popular  preachers,  especially  the  mystics,  used  the  ver- 
nacular. In  1494  appeared  Brant's  "Ship  of  Fools,"  in 
which  the  clergy  are  held  up  to  ridicule.  (3)  In  Eng- 
land French  ceased  to  be  used  during  the  Hundred 
Years  War.  In  1362  English  was  adopted  in  the  courts, 
and  a  new  native  English  literature  began  in  this 
period.  It  was  hostile  to  the  clergy  and  church,  though 
not  to  Christianity.  Wycliffe  (11384)  wrote  some  of 
his  works  in  English;  Wm.  Langland's  "Vision  of 
Piers  Plowman"  (1362)  and  "Pierce  the  Plowman's 
Creed"  by  another  author,  are  bitterly  hostile  to  the 
church  and  clergy.  Chaucer  (1340-1400),  "Fount  of 
English  Undefiled,"  ridiculed  the  clergy  in  his  "Canter- 
bury Tales." 

6.  Renaissance  of  Classical  Culture.  (S.  v.  ii. 
61-71 ;  A.  ii.  286.)  The  Renaissance  was  a  re-birth  of 
classical  culture  in  southern  and  its  first  introduction 
into  northern  Europe;  the  Greek  language  and  litera- 
ture, the  classical  Latin  language  and  literature,  were 


i84  A  GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 

revived  in  Italy  and  rapidly  introduced  into  France, 
Germany,  England,  etc.  It  began  naturally  in  Italy, 
where  there  had  been  a  classic  past;  was  prosecuted 
not  in  the  interest  of  religion,  but  humanity,  hence 
called  humanism,  and  spread  from  Italy  to  Germany, 
France  and  England,  (i)  7n  Italy  it  began  with  the 
teaching  of  Greek  by  Chrysoloras  (1396),  Bessarion 
and  other  Greeks  (1439  on),  and  was  stimulated  by 
scholars  who  fled  from  Constantinople  1453.  Schools 
of  Platonic  and  peripatetic  philosophy  were  founded 
in  Florence.  With  pagan  literature  came  pagan  public 
and  private  morals  and  other  conceptions.  The  church 
and  even  essential  Christianity,  were  neglected,  despised 
or  opposed  (Machiavelli  ^1527).  Laurentius  Valla 
(f  1457)  started  the  critical  movement  by  denying  the 
genuineness  of  the  Donation  of  Constantine,  the  cor- 
respondence of  Christ  with  Abgar,  the  authenticity  of 
the  Apostles'  Creed,  etc.  Students  from  all  parts  of 
Europe  studied  in  Italy,  and  carried  the  new  learning 
back  to  their  homes.  {2)  In  Germany  it  found  place 
chiefly  in  the  universities  of  Erfurt,  Heidelberg,  Tubin- 
gen and  Wittenberg  (founded  1502).  Its  most  emi- 
nent representatives  were  Ulrich  von  Hutten,  poet 
laureate  of  Germany;  Reuchlin  (i 455-1 522),  a  great 
Hebrew  scholar,  defender  of  Hebrew  literature,  op- 
ponent of  the  monks  (Epistolae  Obscurorum  Virorum, 
1515) ;  Erasmus  of  Rotterdam  (1465-1536),  scholar, 
litterateur,  publisher  of  New  Testament  in  Greek  (15 16 
on),  editions  of  the  Fathers,  "Praise  of  Folly,"  op- 
ponent of  the  schoolmen,  monks  and  clergy.  (3)  In 
England  John  Colet  (fi5i9),  abandoned  scholastic 
method  and  expounded  Bible  from  original  text.    Thos. 


OF  CHURCH  HISTORY  185 

More  (1480-1535)  was  friend  of  humanism,  political 
reformer,  author  of  Utopia  (1516).  German  and 
English  humanism  was  religious,  sought  reform  of  the 
morals  and  abuses  of  the  church,  desired  freedom  and 
literary  excellence;  but  sought  them  by  ridicule,  in- 
vective, etc.,  not  by  the  preaching  of  the  Scriptures. 
Few  of  them  adopted  Luther's  doctrines.  (4)  In 
France  humanism  took  little  hold  till  reign  of  Francis 
I,  and  (5)  in  Spain  Httle  except  under  Ximines,  who 
published  Complutensian  Polyglott  (1520). 

Chief  benefits  of  Renaissance  to  religion  were  (i) 
general  enlightenment,  (2)  publication  and  study  of 
the  Scriptures  and  the  Fathers  in  the  original,  (3) 
revival  of  the  grammatico-historical  method  of  in- 
terpretation, (4)  general  intellectual  revival — men  be- 
gan to  think  again,  (5)  revival  of  individualism  as 
against  institutions. 

7.  Reformatory  Movements.  (A.  ii.  279-83;  S. 
V.  ii.  38-47;  57-60.) 

(i)  The  sects  of  the  preceding  period  continued 
into  this,  but  they  had  declined  in  numbers  and  influence 
under  continuous  persecution  and  do  not  seem  to  have 
exercised  much  influence  on  the  Reformation. 

(2)  Important  movements  started  in  this  period,  (a) 
In  England  John  Wycliffe  (1320-84),  "the  morning 
star  of  the  Reformation,"  fellow  and  professor  of 
Oxford,  priest  at  Lutterworth,  condemned  by  the 
church  and  dismissed  by  the  university,  but  protected 
by  the  government,  which  he  defended  against  the 
assumptions  of  the  papacy.  He  translated  the  Scrip- 
tures into  English  from  the  Vulgate,  wrote  many 
tracts  in  English  and  Latin,  rejected  most  of  the  dis- 


i86  A  GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 

tinctive  Catholic  doctrines;  e.  g.,  veneration  of  saints, 
relics,  images;  transubstantiation,  indulgences,  purga- 
tory, ban,  interdict,  papal  authority;  affirmed  Augus- 
tinian  theology,  sole  authority  of  Scriptures,  universal 
priesthood  of  believers;  organized  his  followers  (Lol- 
lards) and  sent  them  forth  to  preach;  they  were  practi- 
cally suppressed  before  the  Reformation.  (b)  In 
Bohemia.  Bohemian  students,  returning  home  from 
England,  carried  Wycliffe's  writings,  which  found  ac- 
ceptance in  University  of  Prague.  John  Huss  (1369- 
1415),  professor  of  theology,  a  preacher  with  popular 
gifts  and  power,  accepted  Wy cliff e's  theological  and 
philosophical  views  and  became  leader  of  a  Bohemian 
party,  while  the  Germans  opposed.  Accused  of  heresy 
by  the  clergy,  he  was  protected  by  his  bishop  and  king, 
Wenceslaus,  till  1408.  The  king  wished  to  remain 
neutral  between  the  two  popes,  while  the  bishop  and  the 
Germans  in  the  University  supported  the  Roman  pope. 
Huss  and  his  party  supported  the  king,  and  secured  a 
decree  giving  the  Bohemians  three  out  of  four  votes 
in  the  control  of  the  university,  an  action  which  led 
the  foreigners  in  the  university  to  withdraw  and  found 
University  of  Leipzig,  1409.  Huss,  now  rector  of  the 
university,  was  supported  by  king,  nobles  and  magis- 
trates, while  he  was  condemned  by  the  pope;  Prague 
was  put  under  the  interdict.  He  attended  Council  of 
Constance  with  emperor's  safe  conduct,  but  was  ar- 
rested, condemned  and  executed  as  a  heretic,  141 5. 
Wrote  many  tracts,  dependent  on  Wycliffe,  but  not 
quite  so  radical,  holding  transubstantiation,  etc. 

For  the  followers  of  Huss,  known  as  Hussites,  see 
above,  (c)  In  the  Netherlands.  Johnof  Goch,  inCleves 


OF  CHURCH   HISTORY  187 

(f  1475),  John  of  Wesel  (f  1481),  professor  at  Erfurt, 
preacher  at  Mainz  and  Worms;  John  of  Wessel 
(11489),  professor  at  Cologne,  Lyons,  Paris,  Heidel- 
berg, all  held  views  almost  identical  with  those  of 
Luther  later  but  formed  no  reforming  party,  (d)  In 
Italy.  Jerome  Savonarola  (1452-98),  Dominican,  bold 
and  eloquent  preacher  of  repentance,  a  political  and 
religious  reformer  of. Florence,  put  under  ban  1497 
and  executed  1498.  Not  so  radical  religiously  as  those 
in  other  countries.  Made  no  permanent  impression 
on  Italy. 

All  the  above  reformers  held  to  Augustinian  theol- 
ogy, and  were  hostile  to  the  church  as  then  conducted. 


BOOK  IV 


189 


BOOK  IV— 15 17  TO  1914 

FIRST  DIVISION— THE  REFORMATION, 
1517— 1648 

A'.     Eastern  Christianity 

A.  iii.  357-360;   K.   Sec.   152;  H.  ii.  793-804. 

I.    Christians  Under  Mohammedan  Rule 
I.     Political  History 

The  Turks  continued  their  expansion  in  the  early 
years  of  this  period.  Suleiman  I  (1512-20)  annexed 
Mesopotamia,  Syria  and  Egypt  and  became  the  recog- 
nized religious  as  well  as  political  head  of  the  Moslem 
world.  Under  Suleiman  the  Magnificent  (1520-66) 
Turkish  power  reached  its  zenith ;  all  the  Balkan  penin- 
sula and  islands  of  E.  Mediterranean  taken  (Cyprus, 
Rhodes  1522) ;  Danube  crossed  and  Hungary  overrun 
(battle  Mohacs  1526),  Vienna  besieged  1529.  After 
this  the  Mohammedan  wave  began  to  recede. 
2.  Religious  History. 

After  capture  of  Constantinople  the  Sultan  appointed 
the  patriarch,  though  the  forms  of  synodical  election 
were  maintained ;  he  was  often  unworthy,  obtaining  his 
position  by  bribery  and  retaining  it  by  sycophancy; 
he  was  set  over  all  orthodox  Christians  of  the  Turkish 
Empire  including  patriarchs  of  Antioch,  Jerusalem  and 
Alexandria  who  were  elected  by  synods  as  of  old;  he 
also  exercised  civil  jurisdiction  over  orthodox  Chris- 

IQI 


192  A  GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 

tians  now  called  Melchites;  bishops  were  often  magis- 
trates, tax-collectors,  etc. ;  many  Christians  became 
Moslems;  only  in  some  of  the  monasteries  as  that  of 
Mt.  Athos  were  culture  and  learning  preserved. 

The  heretical  churches  in  Turkey  (Jacobite,  Nes- 
torian,  etc.)  suffered  like  the  orthodox,  and  need  no 
separate  treatment. 

The  Reformation,  convulsing  W.  Christianity,  was 
scarcely  felt  in  the  East.  Efforts  at  union  made  by 
Lutherans  (Melanchthon  1559,  Crusius  1574)  came 
to  nothing. 

Cyril  Lucar  (b.  in  Crete  1572 — strangled  1638) 
traveled,  studied  and  taught  in  Europe  and  adopted  a 
Calvinistic  position;  became  patriarch  of  Alexandria 
1602,  Constantinople  1621 ;  sought  to  reform  Orthodox 
Church  in  Calvinistic  sense;  deposed  five  times  by 
machinations  of  Jesuits  and  finally  strangled  as  traitor; 
1629-31  he  drew  up  a  Calvinistic  confession  which 
was  influential  in  Europe,  but  was  rejected  and  anathe- 
matized by  "orthodox  church"  in  synod  of  Constanti- 
nople 1638.  In  opposition  Peter  Mogilas,  Metropolitan 
of  Kiev  (1640)  drew  up  the  "Orthodox  Confession  of 
the  Catholic  and  Apostolic  Eastern  Church"  (CC.  II, 
275-400) ;  it  was  adopted  by  a  Russian  synod  and  by 
synod  of  Jassy  1643,  ^"^  signed  by  the  four  patriarchs 
for  the  whole  "orthodox  church."  Calvinism  was 
again  condemned  at  Synod  of  Bethlehem  or  Jerusalem 
1672  and  the  Confession  of  Dositheus  adopted  (CC.  II, 
401-44).  By  these  confessions  the  doctrines  of  the 
Eastern  church  were  crystallized  as  those  of  the  West- 
ern church  at  Trent;  no  important  changes  or  formu- 
laries since. 


OF  CHURCH  HISTORY  193 

11.     Russian  Church 
I.     Political  History 

Russia  was  finally  freed  from  Mongols  in  1480  by 
Ivan  III  (1462- 1 505)  who  made  Moscow  the  capital, 
*'third  Rome,"  ''Metropolis  of  orthodoxy";  empire 
regarded  as  successor  to  the  Greek  Empire  whose 
double-headed  eagle  he  adopted  for  Russia,  and  pro- 
tector of  "orthodox"  Christians;  Ivan  expanded 
Russia  northward  to  Arctic  Ocean,  east  to  Ural 
Mountains  and  west  to  borders  of  Finland,  Esthonia, 
Livonia,  Lithuania  and  Poland.  He  introduced  artists, 
mechanics,  scholars,  etc.  from  Greece,  Italy  and  Ger- 
many. 

Ivan  IV,  the  Terrible  (1533-84),  took  title  Czar, 
subdued  and  incorporated  Siberia  and  vast  regions  to 
S.  E.,  reaching  Caspian  Sea;  this  completed  the  major 
part  of  Russia's  expansion.  In  1598  the  house  of 
Rurik  died  out,  and  after  some  years  of  strife  the 
present  Romanoff  dynasty  ascended  the  throne  1613. 

2.     Religious  History 

The  Mongols  moved  center  of  religious  life  from 
Kiev  to  Moscow,  which  freed  the  church  from  Greek 
control;  metropolitans  now  Russians  elected  by  Rus- 
sians ;  missions  carried  the  church  with  its  organization, 
monasticism  (men  and  women)  as  Russia  expanded; 
in  1587  or  9  patriarch  of  Constantinople  conferred 
patriarchal  dignity  on  metropolitan  of  Moscow  who 
ceased  to  be  consecrated  by  patriarch  of  Constantinople 
in  1660,  making  the  church  entirely  independent  of 
Constantinople.     Worship  was  in  the  vernacular  and 


194  A   GUIDE   TO   THE   STUDY 

Scripture  was  translated  and  circulated ;  printing  press 
and  schools  established  by  Ivan  the  Terrible;  Roman 
Catholics  made  frequent  and  persistent  efforts  to  win 
over  the  Russian  church,  but  succeeded  only  in  Poland 
and  Lithuania;  those  favoring  union  known  as 
**Uniats."  Monasteries  rapidly  acquired  vast  estates; 
church  and  state  intimately  related,  state  dominating. 
Nicon  (b.  1605 — patriarch  1653 — deposed  1666,  d. 
1681),  revised  the  Slavonic  Bible,  the  liturgy  (which 
caused  conservatives  to  SDlit  off — Raskolniks),  re- 
formed the  clergy. 

The  Renaissance  and  Reformation,  raging  on  Rus- 
sia's frontier,  had  no  appreciable  effect  in  that  country. 
The  Confession  of  Mogilas  (see  above)  was  drawn  to 
meet  incipient  Calvinism. 


OF  CHURCH   HISTORY  195 


B.     WESTERN  CHRISTIANITY 

General  Remarks,  i.  It  was  a  period  of  great 
turmoil,  strife  and  rapid  change.  In  fifty  years  nearly 
half  of  Europe  changed  fundamentally  religious  views 
and  church  relations;  religious  wars.  2.  Reformation 
took  six  forms  or  directions:  (a)  Lutheran,  in  Ger- 
many and  in  N.  and  E.  Europe;  (b)  Zwinglian  in  Ger- 
man-speaking Switzerland  and  S.  Germany;  (c) 
Calvinistic  in  French-speaking  Switzerland,  France, 
Netherlands,  parts  of  Germany  and  German-speaking 
Switzerland,  in  Scotland  and  England;  (d)  Anabaptist 
spread  over  most  of  W.  Europe;  (e)  English  Refor- 
mation; (f)  Catholic  or  Counter-Reformation.  3. 
Reformation  was  confined  to  West  or  Roman  Catholic 
church;  East  or  Greek  Catholic  church,  being  little 
affected.  4.  It  sprang  out  of  the  bosom  of  the  Catholic 
church,  not  from  any  of  the  sects.  All  the  leaders  were 
originally  Catholics,  many  of  them  monks  or  priests. 
5.  It  was  successful  only  where  old  Roman  Empire  had 
not  been  established ;  partially  successful  where  the  land 
was  partially  Romanized;  complete  failure  where  land 
was  completely  Romanized.  6.  It  was  everywhere 
largely  a  political  movement;  it  succeeded  or  failed 
according  as  it  won  the  various  governments.  No  two 
confessions  were  tolerated  in  the  same  territory.  Perse- 
cution by  all  parties  except  Anabaptists  (But  cf.  Miin- 
ster).  7.  England,  France,  Spain  and  Empire  were 
the  leading  nations;  first  three  well  centralized,  the 


196  A  GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 

Empire  an  aggregation  of  small  German  states  and 
free  cities,  nominally  members  of  the  Empire  but 
largely  independent.  Spain  was  wealthy,  proud,  ambi- 
tious; France  also;  England  rising,  while  the  Empire 
was  sinking;  three  able  and  ambitious  rulers,  Henry 
Vni  of  England,  Francis  I  of  France,  and  Charles  V 
of  Spain,  elected  Emperor  15 19.  8.  Two  other  im- 
portant political  factors  were  the  popes,  and  the  Turks 
who  were  exceedingly  aggressive  and  troublesome  in 
S.  E.  Europe.  9.  There  was  no  separation  between 
church  and  state,  but  the  state  generally  assumed  con- 
trol over  the  various  reformed  churches.  10.  Mission 
work,  ( I )  Protestants  did  little  mission  work  among 
heathen  (Dutch  in  E.  Indian  colonies;  Williams,  Eliot, 
Brainard,  Edwards  and  others  among  American  In- 
dians), but  they  translated  the  Bible  into  all  the  lan- 
guages of  Europe  from  the  Hebrew  and  Greek  texts. 
(2)  Catholics  did  much  mission  work  among  heathen, 
chiefly  in  connection  with  colonial  enterprises,  through 
Dominicans,  Franciscans  and  Jesuits.  Spain,  Portugal 
and  France  furnished  most  of  the  missionary  zeal.  The 
Spanish  worked  in  southern  portion  of  N.  America, 
Central  and  S.  America,  West  Indies  and  Philippines ; 
Portuguese  in  East  Indies,  S.  Africa  and  Brazil; 
French  in  Canada  and  N.  U.  S. ;  Jesuits  carried  on 
work  in  India  and  China  with  conspicuous  success 
(cf.  Xavier).  11.  Ecclesiastical  organisation,  (i) 
Catholics  in  no  way  altered  their  organization.  (2) 
Protestants  adopted  many  different  forms  of  organiza- 
tion. Lutherans  had  no  fixed  form,  Calvinists  adopted 
the  presbyterial.  Church  of  England  kept  the  Catholic, 
Anabaptist  was  never  fully  developed,  Independents 


OF   CHURCH   HISTORY  197 

and  English  Baptists  adopted  democratic  congregational 
government.  12.  Theology,  (i)  Catholic  theology 
experienced  no  further  development  during  the  Refor- 
mation, but  was  crystallized  and  fixed  in  the  Tridentine 
Creed.  (2)  Protestant  theology  agreed  with  Catholics 
in  the  doctrine  of  God,  Christ  and  Holy  Spirit  (accept- 
ing Apostles',  Nicene  and  Athanasian  creeds),  differing 
chiefly  as  to  the  Bible,  the  church,  the  plan  of  salva- 
tion and  the  future  life;  denied  the  authority  of  tradi- 
tion, rejected  O.  T.  apocrypha,  asserted  right  of  indi- 
vidual interpretation,  translated  and  commended  Bible 
to  the  people;  their  theology  was  Augustinian,  insisting 
on  justification  by  faith  apart  from  works;  as  to  the 
church  and  its  ordinances,  they  were  badly  divided, 
but  reduced  the  means  of  grace  to  two,  the  word  and 
the  sacraments;  they  denied  the  existence  of  a  special 
priesthood,  asserting  the  priesthood  of  all  believers, 
denied  purgatory,  indidgences,  transubstantiation,  the 
sacrifice  of  the  mass,  etc.  Their  various  views  were 
incorporated  in  creeds  and  catechisms  from  1530  to 
1650,  during  which  time  all  the  great  creeds  of  Chris- 
tendom, with  few  exceptions,  were  formulated.  Ana- 
baptists were  anti-Augustinian  in  theology,  emphasiz- 
ing free  will  and  the  importance  of  following  Christ. 
13.  Worship.  (i)  Among  Catholics,  no  radical 
changes;  only  a  few  abuses  removed.  (2)  Among 
Protestants,  worship  was  everywhere  put  into  the 
vernacular;  the  Bible,  preaching  and  teaching  restored, 
the  mass  and  incense  abolished,  congregational  singing 
and  communion  in  both  kinds  restored;  the  number 
of  holy  days  was  greatly  reduced  or  abolished,  a  new 
sacredness  given  to  Sunday;  invocation  of  saints,  relics 


198  A  GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 

and  images  abolished;  so  prayers  for  the  dead;  pil- 
grimages and  shrines  abandoned;  infant  baptism  was 
retained  by  most  Protestants,  but  usually  with  changed 
significance;  Catholic  church  buildings  were  appropri- 
ated wherever  possible ;  vestments,  candles  and  written 
service  widely  but  not  universally  retained. 

14.  Christian  Life.  ( i )  Among  Catholics  was  great 
improvement.  Popes  became  models  of  piety  for  Cath- 
olics, and  no  one  of  scandalous  morals  has  since 
reigned ;  the  secular  clergy  were  greatly  improved ;  old 
monastic  orders  were  reformed  and  new  ones  founded, 
notably  the  Jesuits,  but  no  change  in  fundamental  views 
of  the  Christian  life  and  piety.  (2)  Among  Protes- 
tants all  monastic  vows,  for  both  men  and  women,  were 
abolished,  the  clergy  married,  from  lowest  to  highest. 
Discipline  for  moral  lapses  was  widely  restored,  and 
was  often  very  strict,  notably  among  Anabaptists  and 
Calvinists.  Christian  benevolence  not  largely  culti- 
vated, but  in  general.  Christian  life  and  morals  were 
greatly  improved  by  the  Reformation.  15.  Protestants 
emphasized  religious  education — training  for  ministers 
and  the  people ;  for  the  latter,  the  catechism  was  used, 
setting  forth  doctrines  and  the  duties  of  Christian 
living. 


OF  CHURCH  HISTORY  199 


A.    THE  LUTHERAN  REFORMATION, 
1517-1648 

Some  distinctive  features  are  its  rise  in  Electoral 
Saxony,  in  the  heart  of  Germany,  in  the  newly  founded 
University  of  Wittenberg;  started  by  and  named  from 
Martin  Luther,  an  Augustinian  monk,  who  was  pro- 
fessor. He  began  by  an  attack  on  abuse  of  indulgences, 
without  intending  to  break  with  the  church,  but  soon 
advanced  to  the  denial  of  fundamental  Catholic  doc- 
trines. Its  theology  is  found  in  Melanchthon's  Loci 
Communes  (1521),  the  Augsburg  Confession  (1530), 
Luther's  longer  and  shorter  catechism  (1529),  the 
formula  of  concord  (1576)  and  some  other  confes- 
sional statements;  its  core  is  justification  by  faith;  it 
retained  baptismal  regeneration,  infant  baptism,  pour- 
ing ;  adopted  consubstantiation  and  communion  in  both 
kinds ;  no  uniform  method  of  organizing,  Luther  caring 
little  for  it;  in  worship,  candles,  vestments,  liturgies, 
pericopes  retained,  with  emphasis  on  preaching  and 
congregational  singing;  little  church  discipline.  Chris- 
tian life  being  left  largely  to  the  individual;  a  sharp 
decline  in  morals  for  a  time.  Luther's  principle  of 
reform  was:  ''Retain  all  customs  now  in  the  church 
which  the  Scriptures  do  not  condemn." 

A.     In  Germany 

I.  Luther's  Life  to  15 17.  (H.  ii.  115-55;  N.  ii. 
3-52;  K.  Sec.  122;  S.  vi.  1-29).  Martin  Luther,  son 
of  a  miner,  b.  Nov.  10,  1483,  at  Eisleben,  studied  at 
Mansfield,  Magdeburg,  Eisenach;  studied  law  in  Uni- 


200  A  GUIDE  TO  THE  STUDY 

versity  of  Erfurt,  taking  master's  degree  1505  ;  entered 
Augustinian  monastery  1505,  ordained  priest  1507; 
influenced  by  Staupitz  to  study  Bible,  Augustine  and 
mysticism ;  strict  asceticism  and  strong  religious  experi- 
ence; began  teaching  in  University  of  Wittenberg 
1509;  visit  to  Rome  151 1  disillusioned  and  disgusted 
him;  became  D.  D.  15 12,  and  began  to  teach  Bible, 
gradually  moving  toward  evangelical  views. 

2.  Reformation  1517-25.  (H.  ii.  156-83;  K.  Sees. 
123-125;  N.  ii.  52-93;  A.  iii.  298-309;  S.  vi.  30-79). 
Sale  of  indulgences  becomes  public  scandal ;  consequent 
posting  of  95  theses  by  Luther  Oct.  31,  1517;  attacked 
by  Tetzel  and  Prierias  he  replies ;  summoned  to  Rome 
Aug.,  1 5 18,  the  Elector  obtains  permission  for  him 
to  meet  Cajetan,  the  papal  legate,  at  Augsburg,  Oct., 
1 5 18;  Luther  appeals  to  an  ecumenical  council;  Miltitz, 
sent  to  Germany,  Jan.,  15 19,  obtains  Luther's  promise 
to  keep  silence  if  his  opponents  do ;  Eck  attacks  Luther; 
Leipsic  disputation  June- July,  15 19,  leads  Luther  to 
deny  infallibility  of  pope  and  ecumenical  councils ;  sup- 
ported by  Philip  Melanchthon  (1497-1560);  war  of 
pamphlets ;  Luther  publishes  three  great  tracts :  "To  the 
Christian  Nobility  of  the  German  Nation,  etc."  Aug., 
"Concerning  the  Babylonian  Captivity  of  the  Church" 
Oct.  and  "Concerning  the  Freedom  of  a  Christian 
Man"  Nov.,  1520;  bull  of  excommunication  secured 
by  Eck  June  16,  1520,  publicly  burned  by  Luther 
Dec.  loth;  Luther  appears  before  Diet  at  Worms  dur- 
ing emperor's  first  visit  to  Germany,  April  17,  18, 
1 52 1,  and  on  May  26  was  put  under  ban  of  the  Empire ; 
on  way  back  to  Wittenberg  was  taken  to  Wartburg  for 
safety,  where  he  remains  to  March  3,  1522,  writing 


OF  CHURCH   HISTORY  201 

many  tracts  and  translating  N.  T.,  printed  1522,  whole 
Bible  1534;  returns  to  Wittenberg  because  of  disturb- 
ance by  Zwickau  prophets;  controversy  with  Henry 
Vni  in  1522.  Political  events  influenced  the  history. 
War  with  Francis  I  (152 1-4)  made  it  impossible  for 
Charles  V  to  execute  ban  on  Luther;  German  diet  re- 
fused to  do  so  (1522  and  1524).  In  S.  Germany 
(1524)  Catholic  nobles  formed  league  at  Regensburg 
to  enforce  edict  of  Worms;  in  N.  Germany  (1525) 
Cath.  nobles  formed  league  at  Dessau  to  uproot  the 
reformation.  Knights'  War  1522-3;  1525  (a)  mar- 
riage of  Luther;  (b)  Peasants'  War;  (c)  break  with 
Humanists  (Erasmus),  (d)  with  Anabaptists,  (e)  with 
Zwingli  and  his  followers.  All  this  led  Luther  to 
assume  a  conservative  and  reactionary  attitude. 

3.  Reformation^  1526-32.  (H.  ii.  184-200; 
K.  Sees.  126-5  to  129;  132;  133:1,  2;  N.  ii.  93-108; 
A.  iii.  310-312;  S.  vi.  80-125).  In  1526  Protes- 
tant nobles  form  league  for  defense  at  Torgau. 
Francis  I  captured  at  Pavia  (Feb.  24,  1525)  by 
Charles  V,  was  released  March  17,  1526,  on  signing 
humiliating  Treaty  of  Madrid.  Released  from  his  oath 
by  pope  he  began  war  again  (1527-9).  In  1526  Diet 
of  Spires  practically  revoked  edict  of  Worms  by  giving 
each  prince  freedom  to  act  "as  he  could  justify  himself 
before  God  and  the  Emperor,"  until  a  general  council 
should  decide  the  question.  Many  free  cities  had 
already  introduced  the  Reformation  (Nuremberg, 
Augsburg,  Strasburg,  Magdeburg,  Bremen,  etc.) ; 
under  protection  of  above  decree  several  princes  intro- 
duced it  into  their  entire  territories  (1526-8)  by  pro- 
viding Protestant  pastors,  services,  discipline,  schools, 


202  A  GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 

and  a  new  organization  under  superintendents  ap- 
pointed by  the  princes — Electoral  Saxony  1526,  then 
Hesse,  Francia,  Luneburg,  Mansfield,  etc.,  in  rapid 
succession.  Each  territorial  church  was  reformed  and 
reorganized  by  its  own  prince. 

Charles  chastised  the  pope  for  assisting  Francis  by 
sacking  Rome  May,  1527.  Peace  made  with  the  pope 
at  Barcelona  June  20,  1529,  and  with  Francis  I  at 
Cambray,  in  July;  Turks  driven  back  from  Vienna 
October;  this  left  Charles  free  to  punish  Protestants. 
At  Diet  of  Spires,  1529,  Catholics  in  majority,  re- 
scinded action  of  1526  and  demanded  execution  of  edict 
of  Worms  against  Luther,  the  limitation  of  Lutheran- 
ism  and  suppression  of  Zwinglianism ;  evangelicals  pro- 
tested, hence  name  Protestants.  Alarmed  by  aggres- 
sive tone  of  Catholics  they  seek  union  for  self-protec- 
tion. Conference  between  Luther  and  Zwingli  at  Mar- 
burg Sept.  29f,  1529,  failed  to  bring  union.  Pope 
crowns  Charles  at  Bologna,  Feb.  24,  1530;  Diet  of 
Augsburg  1530,  emperor  present;  Lutherans  state  their 
views  in  Augsburg  Confession  (CC.  HI,  3-73)  ;  its 
origin  and  characters.  Emperor  gives  Protestants  till 
April  15,  1531,  to  return  to  the  church;  Protestants 
form  powerful  Schmalkald  League  Feb.,  1531,  com- 
posed of  Lutheran  princes,  S.  German  cities  and  some 
Catholics,  supported  by  France,  England,  Denmark  and 
Zapolya  of  Hungary;  Turks  again  advance;  all  this 
forced  Charles  to  grant  Peace  of  Nuremberg  July, 
1532,  promising  toleration  till  a  general  council  should 
be  called  to  settle  the  question,  which  was  to  be  within 
a  year. 

4.  Reformation  1532-55.    (H,  ii.  199-218-  N,  ii. 


OF   CHURCH   HISTORY 


203 


108-122;  K.  Sees.  133:3  to  137a;  A.  iii.  316-320.) 
The  promised  council  was  not  convened  until  1545, 
and  Charles  was  able  to  do  nothing  to  check  the  move- 
ment. In  the  meantime,  protected  by  Peace  of  Nurem- 
berg, Protestantism  spread  rapidly;  Wurtemberg,  An- 
halt  and  Pomerania  reformed  1534;  Brandenburg  and 
Ducal  Saxony,  1539 ;  Archbishop  of  Cologne,  converted 
1542;  Brunswick  and  Jiilich-Cleve,  1543;  some  other 
lands  and  many  free  cities  during  this  time.  Many 
efforts  at  union  between  Catholics  and  Protestants 
during  these  years,  culminating  in  conferences  at 
Worms  (1540)  and  at  Regensburg  (1541). 

Peace  of  Crespy  with  Francis  I,  Sept.,  1544;  truce 
with  Turks  Oct.,  1545;  opening  of  Council  of  Trent 
Dec,  1545-  At  last  Charles  was  free  to  apply  force; 
Schmalkald  war  1546-7;  Protestants  divided  and  weak- 
ened; treachery  of  Maurice;  defeat  of  Protestants  at 
Miihlberg;  forcible  introduction  of  Augsburg  Interim 
in  S.  Germany  restored  Catholic  doctrine,  worship  and 
organization  and  left  the  Protestants  only  the  cup  and 
priestly  marriage,  till  a  council ;  expulsion  of  Lutheran 
preachers,  1548;  Leipzig  Interim  1549  introduced  by 
Maurice  in  his  territory  was  much  milder;  1551  Maur- 
ice betrayed  and  defeated  the  emperor;  treaty  of 
Passau,  1552;  continued  reverses  of  the  emperor  lead 
to  peace  of  Augsburg  (1555)  between  Catholics  and 
Lutherans.  ( i )  Princes  to  have  absolute  control  over 
the  religion  of  their  subjects.  Cujus  regio,  ejus  religio. 
(2)  Subjects  of  other  than  the  faith  established  by  law 
should  have  right  to  emigrate  without  loss  of  honor  or 
goods.  (3)  A  Catholic  prelate  becoming  Protestant 
must  resign  and  give  place  to  a  man  satisfactory  to  the 


204  A  GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 

hierarchy.  (4)  In  free  cities,  where  both  faiths  ex- 
isted, they  should  so  continue.  This  brings  to  an  end 
the  first  stage  of  the  Gennan  Reformation. 

Luther  fFeb.  18,  1546,  but  before  his  death  sharp 
theological  controversies  had  begun  among  his  follow- 
ers (N.  ii.  307-28;  K.  Sec.  i4of ;  H.  ii.  500-10;  A.  iii. 
340a),  and  they  continued  to  increase  in  volume  and 
bitterness.  They  were  occasioned  by  the  relations  of 
Lutheranism  with  Zwinglianism  and  Calvinism  on  one 
side  and  Catholicism  on  the  other.  The  more  important 
of  these  controversies  were  (a)  Antinomian  (1537- 
41),  continued  by  the  Majoristic  controversy  (1551- 
62)  on  the  place  of  the  law  in  the  Christian  system; 
(b)  Osiander  controversy  on  justification  (1549-56), 
in  which  Luther's  views  of  justification  and  sanctifica- 
tion  were  confounded;  (c)  Synergistic  controversy 
(1555-67)  over  man's  part  in  his  own  salvation;  (d) 
Adiaphoristic  controversy  (1548-55)  over  things 
essential  and  unessential ;  (e)  communication  of  idioms, 
ubiquity  of  Christ's  body;  (f)  Crypto-Calvinism  in 
the  supper,  1552-74;  1586-92.  These  controversies 
were  violent,  leading  to  frequent  deposition  and  banish- 
ment of  pastors  and  professors,  and  almost  to  blood- 
shed. They  were  somewhat  allayed  by  the  Formula 
of  Concord,  1576  (CC.  Ill  93-180),  which  was  for- 
mally promulgated  by  many  Lutheran  princes  in  1 580, 
and  was  a  triumph  of  strict  Lutheranism.  Dead  and 
fighting  orthodoxy  led  to  the  rise  of  a  mystical  piety 
closely  akin  to  pantheism  (H.  ii.  519-28).  Jacob 
Bohme,  d.  1634;  John  Valentine  Andreae,  d.  1654; 
George  Calixtus,  d.  1656.  The  division  and  strife 
within  the  Lutheran  ranks,  as  also  between  Lutherans 


OF  CHURCH  HISTORY  205 

and  Calvinlsts,  continued  through  the  period  and 
greatly  weakened  the  Protestants  during  the  Thirty 
Years'  War.  But  Protestantism  made  progress  in 
South  Germany  to  end  of  sixteenth  century. 

(B)     In  Scandinavian  Countries 

N.  ii.  298-301;  K.  Sec.  139:1,  2;  A.  iii.  327-328;  H.  ii.  357-9- 

I.  Sweden.  By  Union  of  Colmar  (1397)  Denmark, 
Sweden  and  Norway  had  formed  one  kingdom  under 
rule  of  Danish  kings.  Nobility  and  clergy  were  rich 
and  powerful,  king  weak.  Sweden  had  repeatedly  re- 
belled. The  king,  Christian  II,  defeated  the  rebels  and 
perpetrated  a  bloody  vengeance,  "Stockholm  Bath  of 
Blood"  (1520);  Gustavus  Vasa  was  elected  king  of 
Sweden  1523  by  the  discontented,  and  gradually  wins 
independence  of  the  country ;  he  had  been  in  Germany, 
was  sympathetic  with  the  Reformation  and  permitted 
Protestantism  to  be  preached  and  Bible  translated  by 
Olaf  and  Lars  Peterson  and  Lars  Anderson;  forced 
country  to  accept  Reformation  at  diet  of  Westeras 
1527;  monks  banished,  church  property  confiscated; 
liturgy  in  vernacular;  clerical  marriage  permitted; 
episcopal  organization  continued,  most  of  the  bishops 
accepting  the  reform.  Gradually  the  reform  was  intro- 
duced throughout  the  country.  Catholicism  practically 
disappeared,  and  Lutheranism  was  established  by  law 
as  the  state  church.  Vasa  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Eric  XIV  (1560-8),  and  he  by  his  brother  John  III 
(1568-92),  who,  under  the  influence  of  his  PoHsh  wife 
and  the  Jesuits,  sought  to  restore  Catholicism.  His 
son  Sigismund  III  (also  king  of  Poland)  was  openly 
Catholic,  was  defeated  (1600)  and  succeeded  by  his 


2o6  A  GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 

Protestant  uncle,  Charles  IX.  This  change  fixed 
Sweden  among  Protestant  nations.  Under  Gustavus 
Adolphus  ( 1 611-32)  Sweden  became  a  world  power, 
helping  Protestants  in  Thirty  Years'  War. 

2.  Denmark.  King  Christian  II  (1513-23),  for 
political  and  religious  reasons,  favored  the  Reforma- 
tion; 1521  appeals  to  Rome  were  forbidden;  clergy 
were  permitted  to  marry,  the  monasteries  reformed  and 
the  power  of  the  bishops  limited.  The  people  were 
unfavorable  to  reform  and  hated  the  king.  In  1523  he 
was  deposed,  the  reform  was  overturned  and  his  uncle, 
Frederick  I  (1523-33)  was  chosen  king.  A  Protestant 
at  heart,  he  swore  to  protect  the  Catholic  faith.  Never- 
theless he  protected  Lutheran  preachers,  and  Hans 
Tausen,  a  pupil  of  Luther  (1524  onward),  preached 
Lutheranism  in  Copenhagen;  1527  toleration  granted 
to  Lutherans  by  the  diet  till  the  next  council;  clergy 
restricted  and  right  of  clerical  marriage  granted; 
Scriptures  in  Danish  circulated;  confession  of  faith 
1530;  Christian  III  (1533-59)  was  openly  Protestant; 
imprisoned  and  deposed  all  Catholic  bishops  and  secu- 
larized all  monasteries  in  1536.  Bugenhagen  was 
called  to  organize  the  church  (1537),  crowned  the 
king  and  ordained  seven  Protestant  bishops;  this  ap- 
proved by  Diet  1539.  Diet  of  Copenhagen  (1544) 
confiscated  all  Catholic  property;  disfranchised  Cath- 
olics and  banished  their  clergy.  Lutheranism  was  thus 
established  by  law  as  the  state  church  of  Denmark. 

3.  Norway  for  a  time  supported  Christian  II 
(turned  Catholic  1530)  and  Catholicism,  but  1536  ac- 
cepted Christian  III  and  was  quickly  reformed  and 
established  Lutheranism  as  state  church. 


OF  CHURCH   HISTORY  207 

4.  Iceland  accepted  Lutheran  bishops  1540,  also 
New  Testament.  Catholics  rose  1548,  but  by  1554 
Protestants  victorious. 

(C)     Eastern  Europe 

N.  ii.  301-7;  A.  iii.  323-326;  H.  ii.  361-3;  K.  Sec.  139:18-20. 

1.  Prussia^  the  ecclesiastical  state  of  the  Teutonic 
Order,  was  reformed  and  made  hereditary  duchy  in 
1525,  the  master  of  the  order  becoming  a  Lutheran. 
The  entire  order  and  the  bishops  followed  him. 

2.  Poland  was  a  weak  elective  monarchy,  with  pow- 
erful nobles,  corrupt  and  ignorant  clergy,  mixed  popu- 
lation; Jews  and  Bohemian  Brethren  present  in  large 
numbers  among  Roman  and  Greek  Catholics.  Lu- 
theran views  and  writings  introduced  early  by  students 
educated  at  Wittenberg.  King  Sigismund  I  (1506-48) 
vigorously  opposed.  Reading  of  Luther's  writings  for- 
bidden 1523;  persecution  of  various  kinds,  even  death, 
but  growth,  nevertheless.  From  1540  on,  Calvinism 
made  progress.  Sigismund  Augustus  II  (1548-72) 
more  tolerant.  Polish  N.  T.  I55if ;  in  accordance  with 
action  of  national  assembly  1555,  the  king  demanded 
of  the  pope  a  national  council,  permission  of  priestly 
marriage,  mass  in  vernacular,  cup  for  the  laity  and 
abolition  of  annats.  Protestants  now  had  upper  hand ; 
Socinians  from  Italy  established  at  Racov,  with  univer- 
sity and  press,  grew  rapidly.  In  1570  Bohemian 
Brethren,  Lutherans  and  Calvinists  united,  and  1573 
"Peace  of  the  Dissidents"  assured  peace  between  the 
Catholics  and  Protestants.  Protestant  divisions,  the 
Jesuits  and  King  Sigismund  III  (1587-1632)  turned 
tide   against    Protestants;    never   again    regained   the 


2o8  A  GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 

ascendency.      Protestantism   never  the   state   religion. 

3.  Bohemia  and  Moravia.  Hussites  and  Bohe- 
mian Brethren  predominated  at  outbreak  of  Reforma- 
tion. Lutheran  doctrines  acceptable  to  former,  but 
not  to  latter;  Anabaptists  present  1526  onward;  Bohe- 
mian Brethren  ceased  rebaptizing  1535  to  escape  perse- 
cution of  Anabaptists;  and  in  1542  reached  agreement 
with  Luther;  after  Peace  of  Augsburg  1555,  most 
Protestants  became  Lutherans  for  protection.  Under 
Maximilian  H  (1564-76)  toleration  and  rapid  growth; 
Bible  translated  and  sacred  songs  written;  Calvinism 
introduced  and  grew  rapidly.  To  resist  Jesuits  in  1575 
all  Protestant  parties  united  in  a  confession  of  faith 
and  federated  government.  In  1609  they  forced  the 
fanatical  Catholic  king,  Rudolph  II  (i 576-1612),  to 
grant  them  a  charter  of  complete  religious  freedom 
and  a  body  of  "Defensors"  at  Prague  to  see  that  it  was 
observed;  nine-tenths  of  the  people  were  Protestants. 
Infraction  of  this  charter  (1618)  started  Thirty  Years' 
War,  in  which  Protestants  were  ruined.  Protestantism 
never  the  state  religion. 

4.  Hungary  and  Transylvania.  German  and 
Magyar  population ;  Lutheranism  introduced  into  Hun- 
gary by  students  from  Wittenberg,  1524  on;  King 
Louis  II,  a  vigorous  opponent,  was  killed  in  battle  of 
Mohacz  with  Turks,  1526;  part  of  the  land  fell  under 
the  Turks;  John  Zapolya  and  Ferdinand,  contestants 
for  the  throne,  both  opposed  reform,  but  progress  was 
made,  nevertheless;  Hungarian  N.  T.  1541;  Lutheran 
confession  1545;  Calvinistic  doctrines  introduced 
among  Magyars  early;  Calvinistic  creed  1557;  also 
Anti-trinitarians  and  Anti-pedobaptists ;  majority  of 


OF  CHURCH   HISTORY  209 

population  was  now  Protestant,  but  Protestant  contro- 
versy gave  Jesuits  their  opportunity,  1560  on;  complete 
religious  peace  1606;  by  1634  Catholics  regained  ma- 
jority in  Hungarian  Diet. 

In  Transylvania  Lutheran  doctrine  preached  1521 
on;  John  Honter  (1498- 1549)  evangelized  Kronstadt 
and  vicinity  1533  on;  persecution;  religious  freedom 
1557.  Catholic  reaction  overthrew  most  of  the  Prot- 
estantism. 

(D)'     South  Germany 

Lutheranism  early  penetrated  into  Austria,  Tyrol, 
Salshurg,  Styria,  etc.,  and  made  considerable  progress ; 
Anabaptists,  present  from  1526  on,  were  bitterly  per- 
secuted; nobles  protected  Lutherans  after  Peace  of 
Augsburg  (1555);  Ferdinand  grew  more  tolerant  in 
old  age;  Maximilian  (1564-76)  granted  liberal  treat- 
ment and  there  was  rapid  growth.  Under  succeeding 
emperors  Protestantism  was  largely  stamped  out  by 
persecution  and  the  Jesuits. 

The  dukes  of  Bavaria  were  most  determined  oppo- 
nents of  reformation,  and  never  allowed  it  to  get  foot- 
ing in  their  lands. 

(E)     Italy  and  Spain 

N.  ii.  291-8;  K,  Sec.  139:21-26;  H.  ii.  349-54. 
I.  Italy.  Composed  of  numerous  states,  subservi- 
ent to  papal  influence;  church  corrupt,  secularized; 
humanism  paganized,  destructive  to  faith  and  morals. 
Luther's  early  writing  widely  read  in  Italy;  so  also 
^The  Benefits  of  Christ's  Death,"  by  Benedetto. 
^'Oratory  of  Divine  Love"  founded  at  Rome  1523  by 
prominent  young  clergymen  to  promote  reform ;  Italian 


2IO  A   GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 

translation  of  Bible  1530;  Protestant  churches  at 
Naples  and  Venice,  and  Protestant  circles  at  Modena, 
Florence,  Bologna,  Padua,  Verona,  etc.  Princess 
Renee  of  Ferrara  and  Juan  Valdez,  secretary  of  the 
Spanish  Viceroy  of  Naples,  active  in  protecting  and 
promoting  Protestants.  Bernardino  Ochino  (1487- 
1566),  general  of  the  Capuchin  order,  and  Peter 
Martyr,  an  honored  Augustinian,  and  other  prominent 
men  converted  to  Protestant  views.  Many  anti-pedo- 
haptist  (Socinian)  congregations  rose  in  territory  of 
Venice  and  other  parts  of  N.  Italy,  1550  on.  After 
conferences  at  Regensburg,  1541,  reactidn.  Jesuit 
order  1540;  Inquisition  reorganized  in  Italy  1542; 
Council  of  Trent  1545  on.  All  leaders  forced  to  flee; 
Protestantism  gradually  suppressed,  before  end  of  cen- 
tury had  disappeared.  The  Waldenses  in  Italy  and 
France  were  protestantized  1532  on. 

2.  Spain  had  strong  central  government,  was  rich, 
ambitious  and  powerful;  union  of  Castile  and  Aragon 
1481 ;  overthrow  of  the  Moors  1492;  part  of  Navarre 
annexed  1512;  Sardinia,  Sicily  and  S.  Italy  recently 
added;  15 19  King  Charles  elected  emperor. 

Spanish  church  had  been  reformed  by  Ximines 
(1436-1517),  was  ferocious  from  long  fighting,  and 
used  the  powerful  Inquisition.  Lutheranism  intro- 
duced by  court  officials,  who  attended  Charles  to  Ger- 
many; Seville  and  Valladolid  chief  centers,  but  Protes- 
tants strong  elsewhere ;  Spanish  N.  T.  1 543 ;  prominent 
clergymen  became  Protestants.  Persecution  under 
Charles  V;  extermination  under  Philip  II  1556  on; 
autos  da  fe;  Protestants  disappeared  before  end  of 
century. 


OF  CHURCH   HISTORY  211 


B.    ZWINGLIAN  REFORMATION 

References:  N.  ii.  122-48;  H.  ii.  219-70;  K.  Sec.  130;  A.  iii.  313- 
315;  S.  vii.  1-57. 

I.  Characteristics.  ( i  )  Center  at  Zurich,  limited 
geographically  to  N.  Switzerland  and  S.  Germany; 
only  type  of  reform  which  lost  its  independent  exist- 
ence, being  later  absorbed  in  the  Calvinistic  movement. 
(2)  Church  was  subjected  to  state;  mass  abolished, 
monasteries  dissolved,  etc.,  by  cantonal  governments. 
But  the  church  had  synodal  organization,  and  was  not 
so  abjectly  dependent  on  the  state  as  in  Germany.  (3) 
It  was  more  biblical  than  Luther's  reform.  "All  that 
does  not  find  express  warrant  in  Scripture  must  be  re- 
jected." Its  theology  was  Augustinian,  emphasizing 
election  and  predestination,  but  produced  no  great  work 
on  theology.  (4)  Ordinances  were  symbols,  not 
vehicles,  of  grace.  Infant  baptism  retained,  not  because 
it  effected  salvation,  but  succeeded  circumcision  as  the 
sign  of  the  Christian  covenant;  immersion  recognized 
as  the  primitive  mode,  but  not  practiced.  The  supper 
was  a  memorial  of  Christ's  death.  (5)  Worship  in 
vernacular,  very  simple.  Pictures,  altars,  candles, 
organs,  etc.,  removed,  preaching  emphasized,  singing 
abandoned  for  a  time,  all  holy  days  except  Sunday, 
Christmas,  Good  Friday,  Easter  and  Pentecost  aban- 
doned. Communion  four  times  a  year.  (6)  Christian 
life  improved.  Monasteries  abolished,  many  priests, 
monks  and  nuns  married ;  Christian  morals  emphasized. 


212  A  GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 

2.  Conditions  favorable.  The  Swiss  Confedera- 
tion founded  1291,  nominally  part  of  the  empire,  but 
really  independent  since  1499,  was  composed  of  thir- 
teen cantons,  some  common  subject  territory  and  some 
allied  places,  all  forming  a  loose  federation.  In  local 
matters  each  canton  was  independent,  while  matters  of 
common  interest  were  managed  by  a  federal  council 
composed  of  two  from  each  canton.  The  people  were 
brave,  lovers  of  freedom,  but  mercenary  service  had 
corrupted  them;  humanism  at  Basel,  Zurich,  Berne, 
etc.;  church  corrupt,  badly  organized  (six  bishops 
only)  ;  weak. 

3.  History.  Huldreich  Zwingli,  b.  Wildhaus,  Jan. 
I,  1484,  of  good  family;  educated  at  Basel  and  Berne 
and  in  universities  of  Vienna  and  Basel ;  Catholic  pas- 
tor at  Glarus  1506,  Einsiedeln  15 16,  Zurich  Jan.  i, 
1 5 19;  conversion;  began  study  of  N.  T.  Greek  15 13; 
preached  against  sale  of  indulgences  by  Samson  15 18; 
1520  Council  of  Zurich  granted  freedom  to  preach 
from  Bible;  1522  Zwingli  demanded  privilege  of  mar- 
riage, and  certain  citizens  ate  meat  in  fast  time;  dis- 
putation. (Sixty-seven  articles,  CC.  iii.  196-210)  with 
CathoHcs  Jan.  23,  1523,  followed  by  marriage  of  clergy, 
opening  of  convents,  translation  of  baptismal  service; 
second  disputation  Oct.  26;  images,  altars,  statues  de- 
stroyed, relics  buried  1524;  mass  suppressed,  organ 
removed,  singing  discontinued,  supper  in  both  kinds 
introduced,  monasteries  converted  into  schools  1525 ; 
all  this  done  by  the  Council  for  the  whole  canton  of 
Zurich.  Rise  of  Anabaptists,  beginning  of  strife  with 
Luther  1525,  Marburg  Conference  1529. 

Reform  appeared  early  in  other  cantons,  but  after 


OF   CHURCH   HISTORY  213 

disputation  at  Baden,  May,  1526,  the  federal  council 
decided  against  Reformation,  which,  however,  con- 
tinued to  make  progress.  After  disputation  at  Berne 
1528  reform  was  introduced  into  this  the  most  powerful 
canton,  and  was  thoroughly  organized  by  1532,  Ber- 
thold  Haller  and  Sebastian  Meyer  being  leaders ;  Basel, 
seat  of  a  university  and  printing  presses,  home  of  Eras- 
mus and  humanism,  early  received  gospel  from  Wyt- 
tenbach,  Capito,  Reublin,  but  hesitated  until  under 
(Ecolampadius  religious  freedom  was  attained  1527; 
reform  Introduced  1529  with  a  storm  of  iconoclasm. 
St.  Gall,  under  leadership  of  Vadian,  received  gospel 
1524  on,  and  was  thoroughly  reformed  1527-8.  Ap- 
penzel,  Schajfhausen  and  Graubunden  followed. 

The  tension  between  Catholics  and  Protestants  over 
the  Introduction  of  reform  Into  the  subject  territories, 
led  to  war,  first  of  the  religious  wars  of  the  Reforma- 
tion. In  1528  the  five  forest  cantons  (Catholic) 
formed  leagues  among  themselves,  and  in  1529  alliance 
with  Ferdinand  of  Austria.  The  Protestant  cantons 
did  likewise  with  Protestant  powers;  first  Cappel  war 
1529,  but  bloodshed  was  averted;  peace  favorable  to 
Protestants;  second  Cappel  war,  1531;  Zwingli  killed 
Oct.  II,  his  body  quartered  and  burnt;  peace  un- 
favorable to  Protestants ;  Catholicism  restored  in  some 
places  and  progress  of  reform  permanently  stopped; 
Henry  Bullinger  succeeded  Zwingli ;  first  Helvetic  Con- 
fession (CC.  iii.  211-31)  drawn  up  by  several  theolo- 
gians 1536  to  express  the  common  Swiss  faith.  In 
consensus  of  Ziirich  1549  Calvin  and  Bullinger  and 
their  followers  reached  agreement  on  the  Eucharist, 
thus  completing  the  Calvinistic  conquest  of  Switzer- 


214  A   GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 

land;  second  Helvetic  Confession  (CC.  iii.  233-306, 
translated  Vol.  i.  390-420),  drawn  up  by  BuUinger 
1566  and  accepted  by  the  Swiss,  the  Palatinate  and 
other  countries.  Strasburg,  Constance,  Memmingen, 
Lindau  and  other  South  German  cities  deeply  affected 
by  Zwingli's  views. 


OF  CHURCH   HISTORY 


215 


C.     CALVINISTIC  REFORMATION 
I.     General  Characteristics 

1.  It  rose  in  Geneva,  its  center  of  influence  until 
after  Calvin's  death ;  spread  over  France,  Netherlands, 
Scotland,  Switzerland,  parts  of  Germany  and  E. 
Europe;  deeply  influenced  English  Reformation  and 
all  English-speaking  peoples ;  most  aggressive  and  pro- 
gressive type  of  Protestantism;  mediated  between 
Lutheran  and  Zwinglian  views  on  the  ordinances. 

2.  Church  and  State  not  separated,  but  church 
more  nearly  independent  and  democratic  than  among 
Lutherans ;  it  even  dominated  civil  authority  in  Geneva. 

3.  Polity  was  presbyterial.  ( i )  Local  church  had 
pastor,  elders  and  deacons ;  was  ruled  by  session  elected 
by  people;  (2)  presbytery  composed  of  representatives 
from  various  sessions;  (3)  synods,  composed  of  repre- 
sentatives from  presbyteries;  (4)  general  assembly. 
Some  variations  from  country  to  country ;  these  bodies 
formed  a  series  of  legislative  and  judicial  bodies; 
polity  regarded  as  divinely  revealed  in  Bible  formed  a 
representative  democracy. 

4.  Theology  started  from  the  absoluteness  of  God ; 
emphasized  predestination,  election,  decrees,  depravity 
and  helplessness  of  man,  impotence  of  the  will,  salva- 
tion by  grace,  perseverance  of  saints.  Found  in  Cal- 
vin's Institutes  (1536)  and  in  many  creeds. 

5.  Ordinances.   Baptism  does  not  effect  regenera- 


2i6  A   GUIDE   TO  THE   STUDY 

tion,  but  is  a  sign  and  seal  of  God's  grace,  a  token  of 
purification.  Infants  of  Christians  are  to  be  baptized 
because  they  are  in  the  covenant  of  grace  with  their 
parents;  immersion  was  the  primitive  mode,  but  is  not 
essential.  In  the  supper  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ 
are  received  spiritually  by  faith;  not  with  the  mouth 
and  not  by  the  unbeliever — a  view  midway  between 
Luther  and  Zwingli. 

6.  Worship.  Catholic  elements  removed — altars, 
candles,  pictures,  etc. ;  vestments  retained  in  places ; 
liturgy  with  some  freedom,  emphasis  on  preaching  and 
catechetical  teaching,  singing  Psalms;  holy  days  abol- 
ished, Sunday  (Sabbath)  strictly  observed. 

7.  Christian  Life  very  strict ;  social  and  moral  life 
revolutionized;  insisted  on  renewed  life  and  strict  dis- 
cipline; here  possibly  the  greatest  contribution  of 
Calvinism. 

XL     Life  of  Calvin  and  Reform  of  French 
Switzerland 

N.  ii.  200-25;  H.  ii.  271-304;  K.  Sec.  138;  S.  vii.  58-176;  A.  iii. 
321-22, 

I.  John  Calvin  (1509-64),  b.  July  10,  Noyon, 
Picardy,  France,  of  good  family,  his  father  being  the 
bishop's  secretary;  suffered  from  ill  health,  but  was 
intellectual ;  educated  for  priest  at  Paris,  and  early  held 
benefices;  1529  decided  to  study  law,  at  Orleans  and 
Bourges ;  interested  in  classical  literature  and  N.  T. ; 
taught  by  Wolmar,  a  Lutheran;  gradually  he  became 
more  interested  in  religious  things,  converted  "sud- 
denly" 1533  ;  because  of  open  confession  he  was  forced 
to  leave  Paris;  imprisoned  at  Noycui;  escaped  to  An- 


OF  CHURCH  HISTORY  217 

gouleme,  Nerac,  Poitiers,  Paris;  meets  Le  Fevre, 
Olivetan  and  other  reformers;  persecution  aroused  by 
''Placards"  again  forced  him  to  flee,  1534;  Strasburg, 
Basel  (1535),  where  appeared  his  "Institutes  of  the 
Christian  Religion"  (1536),  dedicated  to  Francis  I; 
visits  Duchess  Renee  at  Ferrara ;  he  again  visits  Noyon 
and  on  his  return  was  pressed  into  service  in  Geneva 
by  Farel,  1536. 

2.  Reform  of  Geneva^  Neuchatel  and  Lau- 
sanne. Geneva,  long  governed  by  its  bishops  and  the 
Count  of  Savoy,  had  gained  its  independence  (1526) 
and  made  alliance  with  Berne  and  the  Swiss.  This 
opened  way  for  Wm.  Farel  (1489- 1565),  Peter  Viret 
(1511-71),  and  Antoine  Froment  to  preach  gospel 
(1532  on);  reform  officially  adopted  1535-6 — mass 
abolished,  images  and  relics  removed,  bishop  banished, 
all  Catholic  worship  forbidden,  school  and  hospital 
founded,  daily  sermons,  simple  communion  and  strict 
discipline  introduced. 

3.  Calvin  in  Geneva  (1536-64).  Calvin  came  to 
Geneva  July,  1536,  introduced  new  church  order,  re- 
formed catechism,  banished  Anabaptists  1537;  oppo- 
sition to  Calvin;  he  and  other  preachers  banished  1538. 
At  Strasburg  1538-41 ;  here  he  married,  came  in  con- 
tact with  German  reformers;  took  part  in  the  confer- 
ences between  Catholics  and  Protestants  at  Hagenau, 
Worms  and  Regensburg.  Disorders  and  Catholic  ag- 
gressions at  Geneva;  C.  returns  to  Geneva  on  urgent 
invitation  of  Council  1541,  receiving  ovation;  drew  up 
''ecclesiastical  ordinances"  and  civil  code.  The  church 
of  the  city  governed  by  the  "venerable  company"  con- 
sisting of  ministers  and  teachers,  who  selected  minis- 


2i8  A   GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 

ters,  exercised  authority  over  doctrine,  etc.,  and  by 
"consistory"  of  six  ministers  and  twelve  laymen  nomi- 
nated by  the  ministers,  with  jurisdiction  over  discipline, 
serious  cases  being  turned  over  to  the  civil  courts; 
four  church  officers — Ministers,  elected  by  college  of 
ministers  and  confirmed  by  the  council ;  teachers,  elders 
and  deacons.  "Genevan  catechism"  and  liturgy  1542; 
rigid  discipline;  renewed  opposition  till  1555;  execu- 
tion of  Servetus  1553;  founded  college  and  seminary, 
famous  as  training  place  for  ministers  for  many  lands ; 
high  character  of  Geneva  continued  two  centuries  till 
Rousseau  and  Voltaire ;  Calvin,  widely  influential,  spent 
his  old  age  in  peace  and  honor;  d.  May  27,  1564. 

III.     Reformation  in  France 
N.  ii.  225-34;  480-8;  H.  ii.  305-28;  K.  Sec.  139:13-17;  Sec. 
153:4;  A.  iii.  332. 

1.  Conditions.  France  a  well  organized,  central- 
ized kingdom ;  progress  of  reform  must  depend  largely 
on  attitude  of  the  king;  Francis  I,  brilliant,  able,  favor- 
able to  humanism;  the  church  rich,  corrupt,  oppressive, 
hated;  its  freedom  (Pragmatic  sanctions  of  Bourges 
1438)  lost  by  Concordat  1 5 16,  king  nominating  all 
higher  officers  and  pope  taking  revenues. 

2.  History  OF  Reform,  (i)  T^?  1559.  Earliest  re- 
formers were  Jacques  Le  Fevre,  a  humanist  who  wrote 
commentaries  on  Psalms  and  Romans,  taught  justifica- 
tion by  faith,  denied  transubstantiation,  translated 
New  Testament  1523,  Old  Testament  1525  ;  Briconnet, 
Bishop  of  Meaux,  Wm.  Far  el  and  others  in  Meaux. 

In  1 52 1  the  Sorbonne  condemned  Luther's  writings. 
Parliament  of  Paris  ordered  them  burned ;  king  at  first 


OF  CHURCH   HISTORY  219 

favorable  to  reform  became  hostile  1528-33;  Cop  and 
Calvin  flee;  king  favorable  again  1533-4.  Placards, 
Oct.  18,  1534,  embittered  king;  severe  persecution, 
death  of  many ;  Protestant  books  prohibited  in  France, 
1542;  nearly  4,000  Waldenses  butchered  in  S.  E. 
France  1545.  Persecution  continued  with  brief  cessa- 
tions throughout  reign  of  Francis,  but  Protestants 
increased.  Calvin's  influence  strongly  felt  from  1536 
on,  many  preachers  and  colporteurs  from  Geneva. 

Henry  H  (1547-59)  more  stringent  (chambre 
ardente  1547;  Edict  of  Chateaubriand  1551 ) ;  but  could 
not  stop  the  growth.  Reformed  began  to  organize 
churches,  c.  1555.  a.  Local  congregation  with  deacons, 
elders  (chosen  by  people  and  forming  a  consistory) 
and  minister  (chosen  by  consistory  and  approved  by 
the  people),  b.  Colloquy,  c.  Provincial  synods,  d. 
General  or  national  assembly;  the  last  organized  1559, 
drew  up  Confession  of  Faith  (CC.  Vol.  HI,  356-82) 
and  Book  of  Discipline.  Probably  300,000  at  this  time 
now  called  Huguenots  from  their  dependence  on  the 
Swiss  or  Eidgenossen. 

(2)  1559-98.  Protestants  now  become  political 
party,  opposed  by  Guise  family  (six  brothers),  but 
supported  by  old  nobility — three  noble  ladies,  Margaret 
of  Navarre,  Jeanne  d'Albret,  and  Renee,  duchess  of 
Ferrara;  three  of  the  Bourbons,  Antoine,  husband  of 
Jeanne  d'Albret,  Louis,  Prince  of  Conde,  Henry  of 
Navarre,  son  of  Antoine ;  three  brothers  of  the  Chatil- 
lon  family.  Cardinal  Chatillon,  Admiral  Gaspard  de 
Coligny  and  Francis  d'Andelot.  This  situation  precipi- 
tates eight  civil  wars  within  thirty  years.  Under 
Francis    H    (1559-60)    Guises    control    government 


220  A  GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 

through  his  wife  Mary  Stuart,  their  niece;  persecution 
is  severe;  Conspiracy  of  Amboise  suppressed  1560. 

Charles  IX  (1560-74)  was  only  ten  yeafs  old;  his 
mother  Catherine  de  Medici  as  regent  rules  by  playing 
off  the  two  parties  against  each  other.  Persecution  is 
stopped,  effort  at  harmony;  Colloquy  of  Passy  Sept. 
1 561 ;  the  edict  of  St.  Germain  gives  Protestants  right 
to  public  worship  outside  walled  towns  and  in  private 
houses  in  such  towns.  ( i )  Massacre  by  Duke  of  Guise 
at  Vassy  March  i,  1562;  at  Toulouse  (3,000  killed) 
and  elsewhere  precipitated  first  civil  war  1562-3 ;  ended 
by  Edict  Amboise,  unfavorable  to  Protestants.  (2) 
Effort  of  the  Protestants  to  get  possession  of  the  king's 
person  precipitated  second  war  1567,  peace  terms  same 
as  before.  (3)  Third  war  followed  by  Edict  of  St. 
Germaine  Aug.  8,  1570,  giving  Protestants  freedom 
of  conscience,  freedom  of  worship  wherever  it  had  been 
free  before,  in  the  suburbs  of  at  least  two  towns  in 
every  government  and  in  the  palaces  of  the  great  nobles, 
while  four  towns — La  Rochelle,  Montauhan,  Cognac, 
La  Charite — given  them  as  pledges  for  at  least  two 
years;  the  king  gave  up  the  Spanish  alliance.  (4) 
Marriage  of  Henry  of  Navarre  to  Marguerite,  the 
king's  sister,  Aug.  18,  1572;  massacre  of  St.  Bartholo- 
mew Aug.  24,  1572  (70,000  killed),  precipitated  4th 
war,  concluded  by  peace  of  Rochelle,  July,  1573,  less 
favorable  to  Protestants.  (5)  Henry  III  (1574-89) 
leads  5th  war,  followed  by  Edict  of  Beaulieu,  May  6, 
1576.  The  favorable  terms  of  this  peace  and  the  fact 
that  Henry  of  Navarre,  a  Protestant,  was  recognized  as 
next  heir  to  the  throne,  led  the  Duke  of  Guise  to  form 
a  league  for  defense  of  Catholic  faith.     (6)   Sixth  war 


OF  CHURCH  HISTORY  221 

ended  by  peace  of  Bergerac  Sept.  15,  1578,  less  favor- 
able to  Protestants.  (7)  Seventh  war  ended  1580. 
(8)  The  eighth  war— ''War  of  the  three  Henrys"-^ 
began  1585.  Gradually  the  League  became  more  hos- 
tile to  the  king;  king  had  two  of  the  Guises  assas- 
sinated, fled  to  Henry  of  Navarre  for  protection  and 
was  himself  assassinated  Aug.  i,  1589.  Most  of  the 
Catholics  refused  to  accept  Henry  of  Navarre  as  king, 
and  set  up  Cardinal  Bourbon  as  Charles  X;  d.  1590. 
Henry,  opposed  by  Catholics  supported  by  Philip  H 
of  Spain,  became  Catholic  1593,  to  secure  the  throne; 
now  accepted  by  all  as  Henry  IV.  Granted  Protestants 
Edict  of  Nantes,  April,  1598,  giving  complete  liberty 
of  conscience,  full  civil  rights  and  protection,  freedom 
of  worship  with  considerable  geographical  restrictions, 
the  same  four  places  of  safety  for  eight  years. 

Henry  IV  assassinated  1610;  Louis  XIII  (1610-43) 
a  child  of  nine;  Richelieu  real  ruler  (1624-42)  de- 
stroyed the  political  power  of  the  Protestants,  capturing 
their  last  stronghold.  La  Rochelle  1628;  Protestants 
cease  to  be  a  political  party,  a  "state  within  a  state" ; 
Edict  of  Nimes  (1629)  withdrew  all  special  privileges 
but  confirmed  their  religious  rights;  persecution  under 
Louis  XIV  (1643- 1 71 5)  till  revocation  of  edicts  of 
Nantes  and  Nimes  1685;  Protestantism  in  every  form 
became  illegal;  thousands  forced  back  into  Catholic 
Church,  50,000  or  more  families  leave  France. 

IV.     The  Netherlands 

N.  ii.  244-6;  K.  Sec.  139:12;  H.  ii.  331-6;  A.  iii.  333. 

I.  Conditions.  The  Netherlands,  covering  approx- 
imately the  territory  now  comprising  Belgium  and  Hoi- 


222  A  GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 

land,  consisted  of  seventeen  provinces,  differing  in 
laws,  customs  and  characteristics;  the  people  were 
wealthy,  hardy,  thrifty,  intelligent,  possessing  impor- 
tant privileges  and  loving  freedom.  They  were  under 
the  suzerainty  of  the  Empire  but  the  direct  government 
had  gradually  fallen  into  the  hands  of  one  family  dur- 
ing the  latter  half  of  15th  century  and  passed  by  in- 
heritance to  Charles  V.  In  1548  he  was  able  to  detach 
them  from  the  Empire,  and  in  1555  they  passed  to  his 
son  Philip,  thus  becoming  attached  to  the  crown  of 
Spain.  Religiously  they  had  enjoyed  great  freedom, 
having  little  hierarchical  organization,  being  the  home 
of  all  kinds  of  evangelical  dissent  in  the  later  Middle 
Ages. 

2.  Course  of  Reform,  (i)  Lutheran  movement 
early  felt  in  Netherlands;  Charles  ordered  its  suppres- 
sion 1 52 1  and  established  the  inquisition;  first  martyr- 
dom of  the  Reformation  was  at  Brussels,  July  i,  1523. 
(2)  Zwinglian  elements  early  introduced  along  the 
Rhine;  Dutch  Bible  1525.  (3)  In  1529  Anabaptists 
(Hofmannite  type)  began  to  flood  the  country  and  for 
a  time  were  strongest  party  of  reformers,  especially  in 
the  north.  (4)  Calvinism  introduced  c.  1553  and 
rapidly  gained  the  lead.  Charles  V  persecuted  continu- 
ally, thousands  perished  ( 100,000  says  Grotius).  Under 
regencies  of  Margaret  and  Maria  some  relief,  many 
English  Protestants  fleeing  thither  1553-8.  Philip  II 
(1555-98),  determined  to  crush  all  dissent,  began  by 
creating  fourteen  new  bishoprics,  making  archbishops 
of  the  four  old  bishoprics,  and  retaining  in  the  country 
the  Spanish  soldiers  he  had  promised  to  remove.  Mar- 
garet of  Parma  regent  1559-67  had  constant  friction 


OF   CHURCH   HISTORY 


223 


with  the  people.  Nobles  form  union  for  defense  of 
their  rights  1565,  known  as  "Compromise  of  Breda." 
Storm  of  Calvinistic  iconoclasm  1566  suppressed  by 
Egmont  and  William  of  Orange.  Alva  sent  from 
Spain  with  20,000  veterans  as  generalissimo  (1567-73) 
to  put  down  Protestantism  in  blood.  "Council  of 
Blood";  death  of  Egmont  and  Horn;  resistance  by 
William  of  Orange,  Alva  ruined  the  country  by  taxes 
and  put  at  least  18,000  to  death.  Alva  was  recalled 
but  war  continued;  siege  of  Leyden  1574;  in  1576  all 
the  provinces,  regardless  of  religion,  united  to  drive 
out  the  Spaniards;  Alexander  of  Parma  (1578-92) 
was,  however,  able  to  recover  the  southern  provinces 
(Belgium)  by  promising  the  restoration  of  all  poli- 
tical privileges,  thus  saving  them  for  Spain  and  the 
Catholics.  Seven  northern  provinces  form  Union  of 
Utrecht  1579,  in  1581  declare  their  independence  of 
Spain  and  elect  William  of  Orange  stadtholder  for  life. 
William,  assassinated  1584,  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Maurice  who  continued  the  war  assisted  by  England; 
Spanish  Armada  1588;  war  continued  till  1609  when 
a  twelve-year  truce  was  followed  by  war  until  1648 
when  Holland  was  recognized  as  a  free  republic  by 
Spain  and  the  empire.  Great  prosperity  and  develop- 
ment in  latter  part  of  period.  Universities  established; 
Leyden  1575,  Groningen  161 2,  Utrecht  1636. 

Calvinists  drew  up  Belgic  confession  (CC.  HI  383- 
436)  in  1 561,  adopted  by  synod  of  Antwerp  1566  and 
by  National  Synod  at  Dort  1574,  revised  by  Synod  of 
Dort  1619;  it  with  Heidelberg  catechism  became  the 
doctrinal  standards  of  the  state  church,  thus  estab- 
lishing Calvinism;  Catholicism  was  suppressed,  while 


224  A   GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 

Lutheranism   and    Anabaotism    were   tolerated    under 
restrictions. 

3.  Rise  of  Arminianism.  (N.  ii.  335-49.)  Jas. 
Arminius  (1560-1609),  professor  of  theology  at  Ley- 
den  (1603),  undertaking  to  defend  Calvinism  against 
attack,  was  himself  converted  to  the  views  he  opposed 
and  began  to  advocate  revision  of  the  symbols ;  opposed 
by  Francis  Gomarus  (1563- 1645),  ^^  was  supported 
by  other  theologians  and  by  the  statesman  Olden  Barna- 
veldt  (1549-1619)  and  the  great  scholar  Hugo  Grotius 
( 1 583-1645).  They  drew  up  five  articles  called  Re- 
monstrance 1610  (CC.  ni  545-9),  hence  were  called 
Remonstrants  and  later  Arminians.  They  opposed  Cal- 
vinism at  several  vital  points  and  the  centralizing  ten- 
dencies of  Maurice  in  politics,  favoring  a  republican 
confederacy;  they  were  thus  driven  into  the  position  of 
a  political  party.  The  bitter  controversy  culminated  in 
the  great  Synod  of  Dort  (Nov.  13,  16 18,  to  May  9, 
1619),  composed  of  Dutch  Calvinists  and  representa- 
tives of  other  Reformed  churches,  called  and  supported 
by  the  States  General.  Calvinism  triumphed  completely 
of  course.  Canons  of  the  Synod  drawn  in  opposition 
to  Arminian  articles  (CC.  HI  550-97)  ;  200  Arminian 
preachers  deposed  and  driven  out  of  the  country.  Bar- 
naveldt  beheaded,  Grotius  imprisoned  but  escaped 
(1621).  After  death  of  Maurice  (1625)  Arminians 
were  allowed  to  return  and  build  churches  and  schools 
and  the  era  of  toleration  began;  but  they  have  not 
flourished  and  the  state  church  of  Holland  is  still 
Calvinistic. 

4.  Beginning  of  Protestant  missions.  Before  end 
of  period  several  advocates  of  foreign  missions  appear, 


OF   CHURCH   HISTORY  225 

the  first  among  Protestants  (1620  onward) ;  the  mis- 
sion work  was  among  natives  bv  chaplains  in  East 
Indian  possessions. 

V.     Scotland 

N.  ii.  235-44;  H.  ii.  444-77;  K.  Sec.  139:8-11;  A.  iii.  330. 

1.  Conditions.  Scotland,  free  from  England  since 
13 14,  was  a  weak  monarchy  (Jas.  V.) ;  parliament  and 
a  body  of  rich,  violent  and  powerful  nobles ;  the  enemy 
of  England,  the  ally  of.  France.  The  Church,  at  first 
pure  and  independent  of  Rome  (Culdees),  had  been 
romanized  by  Normans  in  nth  century,  was  now 
wealthy  and  corrupt,  under  primacy  of  profligate 
Cardinal  Beaton,  archbishop  of  St.  Andrews. 

2.  Reform,  (i)  To  Knox  1^60.  James  V.  (1513- 
42)  married  to  Mary  of  Guise,  was  dominated  by  the 
clergy.  Parliament  forbade  (1525)  introduction  of 
Lutheran  books  and  doctrines.  First  preacher  of  re- 
formed views,  a  scion  of  the  nobility,  Patrick  Hamil- 
ton, was  burned  at  St.  Andrews  1528.  During  next 
fourteen  years  Tyndale's  English  N.  T.  was  widely 
circulated  secretly  and  reform  doctrines  otherwise 
propagated  at  the  cost  of  several  martyrs  at  Edinburgh, 
Perth,  St.  Andrews,  Glasgow  and  elsewhere.  James 
d.  1542,  leaving  only  an  infant  daughter,  Mary,  as 
heir  to  the  throne.  During  regency  of  his  widow  Mary 
of  Guise  (1542-60)  policy  of  repression  continued 
while  she  educated  her  daughter  in  France.  Feb.  28, 
1546,  Geo.  Wishart  was  martyred  at  St.  Andrews; 
May  29  Cardinal  Beaton  was  assassinated  in  retaliation ; 
conspirators  seized  castle  of  St.  Andrews  but  were 
captured  with  aid  of  French  and  sent  to  French  galleys. 


226  A  GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 

Among  them  was  John  Knox  (1505-72),  a  teacher, 
with  university  education,  converted  c.  1542  by  Wishart 
whom  he  accompanied  and  defended;  preached  first 
in  castle  of  St.  Andrews;  captured  and  held  nearly 
two  years  on  galley;  released  through  intercession  of 
Edward  VI,  he  spent  1549-54  as  pastor  in  England; 
driven  away  by  Mary  Tudor  he  lived  at  Geneva, 
Frankfort  on  the  Main,  Geneva  again;  spent  nearly  a 
year  in  Scotland  1555-6,  then  at  Geneva  till  1559, 
writing,  assisting  with  Geneva  version  of  Scriptures 
and  acting  as  pastor  of  the  English  church.  In  1557 
Protestant  nobles  of  Scotland  formed  a  "covenant" 
to  further  reform,  the  first  of  the  "covenants." 

(2)  Reform  1560-92.  Knox  returned  1559  and 
began  powerful  agitation  for  reform  and  the  expulsion 
of  the  French.  French  defeated  and  expelled  1560  by 
aid  of  English;  the  regent  died  during  the  year.  Par- 
liament commissioned  Knox  and  others  to  draw  up  a 
confession  {CC  III  437-79) ;  adopted  by  Scotch  par- 
liament Aug.  17,  1560,  but  never  approved  by  the 
queen;  Aug.  24  mass,  jurisdiction  of  pope  and  all 
laws  supporting  Roman  Church  abolished;  but  re- 
formed church  was  first  formally  established  1567. 
Book  of  discipline  adopted  by  first  General  Assembly 
of  the  church  Dec,  1560,  never  approved  by  parlia- 
ment, provided  for  four  officers  (ministers,  teachers, 
elders,  deacons,  all  elected  by  congregation),  for  local 
sessions,  provincial  synods  and  national  assembly. 
Church  claimed  independence  of  the  state  in  formu- 
lating doctrines,  choosing  ministers,  exercising  dis- 
cipline, controlling  property,  etc.;  provided  for 
excellent   educational   system,   supported   by   seques- 


OF   CHURCH   HISTORY  227 

trated  church  property,  most  of  which,  however, 
eventually  fell  to  the  nobles.  Mary  Stuart  now  a 
widow  returned  to  Scotland  1561.  Struggle  with 
Knox  and  the  Reformers  in  effort  to  restore  Catholi- 
cism till  1567  when,  forced  to  abdicate  in  favor  of  her 
infant  son  James  VI,  she  flees  to  England,  where  as  a 
prisoner  she  is  center  of  Romanist  plots  for  twenty 
years;  executed  1587.  Government  favors  episcopacy 
and  civil  control  of  the  church,  opposing  its  representa- 
tive democracy;  new  confession  or  "National  Cove- 
nant" 1 58 1  (CC,  III  480-5);  in  1592  government 
yielded  church's  claims  and  established  Presbyterian 
church  government. 

(3)  Reform,  1 592-1690.  By  death  of  Elizabeth 
1603  James  VI  became  also  king  of  England  as  James 
I.  Desire  to  harmonize  the  two  countries  and  control 
Scottish  Kirk  led  him  gradually  to  impose  episcopacy 
upon  Scotland.  In  1612  Scottish  parliament  re-estab- 
lished episcopal  government.  Charles  I  even  more 
strenuous;  in  1636  established  complete  episcopal 
system  by  "Book  of  Canons,"  a  liturgy  and  priestly 
dress  based  on  English  usage;  July  23,  1637,  riot  at 
Edinburgh  over  introduction  of  this  prayer  book  in 
St.  Giles  (Jenny  Geddes).  Signing  of  "Covenant" 
March  i,  1638,  and  outbreak  of  civil  war  1639. 
King's  need  for  money  to  suppress  Scottish  rebellion 
forces  him  in  1640  to  convene  English  Parliament, 
which  he  had  not  called  for  many  years.  It  was 
hostile  to  his  policies,  and  in  1643  began  war  against 
him;  in  order  to  secure  help  of  the  Scotch  it  united 
with  them  in  "Solemn  League  and  Covenant"  (1643) 
to  preserve  Presbyterian  church  in  Scotland  and  estab- 


228  A  GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 

lish  it  in  England  and  Ireland.  Sent  commissioners 
to  Westminster  Assembly  1643-9  ^"^^  adopted  its  Con- 
fession, Catechisms,  etc.,  as  the  symbols  of  the  Kirk, 
thus  replacing  those  of  Knox.  After  capture  of 
Charles  the  Scotch  invaded  England  in  his  interest, 
but  were  beaten  by  Cromwell  their  former  ally.  On 
the  execution  of  Charles  I  1649,  Scotch  crowned 
Charles  II  at  Scone  Jan.  i,  1651,  after  he  had  accepted 
the  ^'Covenant" ;  defeated  and  driven  out  by  Cromwell 
who  holds  Scotland  but  permits  religious  freedom; 
Charles  II  accepted  as  king  of  England  1660;  episco- 
pacy again  forced  on  Scotland  1662,  driving  out 
Presbyterian  ministers.  Severe  measures  caused  re- 
bellion of  the  Scotch  1679.  Claverhouse;  "Cameron- 
ians."  Severe  persecution  until  Revolution  1688 
placed  William  of  Orange  on  throne,  as  William  III. 
In  1690  episcopal  church  was  abolished,  Presbyterian 
finally  reestablished  and  Westminster  standards  con- 
firmed. Church  was  now  Presbyterian  in  polity,  Cal- 
vinistic  in  doctrine,  rigid  and  stern  in  life. 

VI.    Other  Lands 

H.  ii.  511-18;  K.  Sec.  154;  N.  ii.  246-48. 

Calvinism  spread  into  other  lands,  affecting  the 
course  of  history — Switzerland,  the  Palatinate, 
Hesse,  Brandenburg  and  other  German  states;  Hun- 
gary, Poland  and  Transylvania;  England,  N.  Ireland 
and  with  the  English  throughout  the  world. 


OF  CHURCH  HISTORY  229 

D.    ANABAPTIST  REFORMATION 

N.  ii.  148-200;  K.  Sees.  145-48;  H,  ii.  557-62. 

1.  Characteristics,  (i)  Anabaptists  may  have 
had  some  historical  connection  with  earlier  sects,  but 
it  has  not  been  proven,  and  many  considerations  render 
it  doubtful.  All  whose  life  history  is  known  came  out 
of  Catholic  church;  they  had  no  consciousness  of  con- 
nection with  earlier  sects,  nor  did  they  enter  into  com- 
munion with  them.  The  more  probable  source  is  the 
renewed  study  of  the  Bible.  (2)  They  held  a  great 
variety  of  views  but  agreed  in  general  on  the  following 
points:  (a)  The  church  is  composed  of  believers  only, 
saints.  This  the  central  normative  doctrine  of  the 
system,  (b)  Infant  baptism  is  the  invention  of  man 
or  the  devil,  the  chief  stronghold  of  the  papacy,  is 
corrupting  and  without  Scriptural  warrant,  is  null; 
only  baptism  of  believers  is  valid;  various  modes 
practised,  (c)  The  church  is  to  be  kept  pure  by  the 
practice  of  rigid  discipline,  (d)  Absolute  separation 
of  church  and  state,  and  consequent  religious  freedom. 

(e)  Rejection  of  oaths,  war,  the  holding  of  civil  oiUce. 

(f)  Property  is  held  by  Christians  as  stewards  only; 
many  of  them  favored  and  practiced  communism,  (g) 
Anti-Augustinian  theology,  (h)  Itinerant  ministry 
under  general  superintendency.  (i)  They  had  no 
great  leader.  It  was  a  movement  of  the  people,  of 
the  laity.     For  their  confessions  see  B.  C.  F.  1-23. 

2.  Their  History.  Anabaptists  seem  to  have 
sprung  up  independently  and  simultaneously  at  var- 
ious places,  but  they  can  be  divided  into  four  general 
geographical  groups. 


230  A  GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 

(i)  Swiss-Moravian  Anabaptists  rose  in  the  circle 
about  Zwingli  and  spread  quickly  over  reformed  Switz- 
erland. Leaders  were  Conrad  Grebel,  Felix  Manz, 
Geo.  Blaurock,  Ludwig  Hatzer  and  Balthasar  Hub- 
meier.  Believer^s  baptism  begun  Jan.,  1525,  by  Grebel 
(not  immersion)  ;  disputation  between  Zwingli  and 
Anabaptists  Jan.  17,  1525;  repressive  measures  by 
Zurich.  Spread  to  Basel,  Berne,  Chur,  Schaffhausen, 
Appenzell,  St.  Gall;  persecution  everywhere;  martyr- 
dom of  Manz  1527  at  Zurich;  martyrdoms  in  Basel, 
Berne  and  elsewhere.  Waldshut  reformed  1524 ;  Hub- 
meier  the  eloquent  and  noted  pastor  becomes  Anabap- 
tist 1525;  driven  out  he  flees  to  and  is  imprisoned  in 
Zurich,  escaping  by  recanting  he  fled  to  Nickolsburg 
in  Moravia.  Swiss  Anabaptists  flee  into  Tyrol  and 
Moravia.  Continued  to  be  persecuted  in  Switzerland 
but  remain  to  the  present. 

At  Nickolsburg  and  Austerlitz  they  built  up  com- 
munal houses,  prospering  greatly;  many  thousands  in 
this  region ;  for  a  while  peace,  then  persecution.  Some 
fled  to  Russia  and  in  1874  to  S.  Dakota.  Closely 
associated  with  the  Swiss  were  Hans  Denck  and 
others  from  South  Germany. 

2.  German  Anabaptists  rose  at  Zwickau  near  Wit- 
tenberg; leaders  were  Thos.  Miinzer  and  Nicholas 
Storch,  "Zwickau  prophets";  emphasized  "inner 
light,"  church  of  saints,  etc.  Set  up  independent 
church  c.  1520;  Storch  and  Steubner  visit  Wittenberg 
1 52 1,  win  Carlstadt  and  Cellarius;  chiliastic- and  so- 
cialistic views  lead  to  Peasants'  war  in  which  Miinzer 
and  his  followers  perished;  this  destroyed  the  Ana- 
baptist movement  in  Germany..  Miinzer  infected  many 


OF  CHURCH   HISTORY  231 

other  men;  Hut,  etc.     They  opposed  infant  baptism, 
but  do  not  seem  to  have  instituted  baptism  of  behevers. 

(3)  Dutch  Anabaptists  founded  by  Melchior  Hof- 
mann,  a  radical  reformer  with  chiHastic  notions  1523 
on;  preached  over  all  N.  Germany,  along  the  Rhine, 
in  Sweden,  Denmark  and  Netherlands;  became  Ana- 
baptist at  Strasburg  c.  1529;  peculiar  Christology,  re- 
garding Christ's  body  as  divine ;  owing  to  persecution 
he  suspended  baptism  and  returned  to  Strasburg  1533 
to  await  coming  of  the  Lord;  was  thrown  into  prison 
where  he  died  ten  years  later.  After  his  imprison- 
ment leadership  was  assumed  by  Jan  Mathys  who 
ordered  the  resumption  of  baptism,  proclaimed  him- 
self the  promised  Enoch,  invited  all  the  faithful  to 
Miinster  (which  had  recently  accepted  the  Reforma- 
tion) where  he  set  up  the  ''Miinster  kingdom"  1534-5. 
Destroyed  by  the  bishop,  supported  by  the  princes. 
Horrible  history. 

After  this  storm  Menno  Simon  (1536  on)  gathered 
the  remnants  of  the  quiet  Anabaptists  who  repudiated 
the  name  "Anabaptist,"  and  hence  came  to  be  known 
as  "Mennonites."  They  are  a  continuation  of  the 
Anabaptist  movement.  Confession  of  faith  B.  C.  F. 
24-49. 

(4)  Anti-Trinitarian  Anabaptists.  Not  all  anti- 
trinitarians  were  Anabaptists,  but  most  were.  Most 
of  the  forms  of  Unitarianism  were  represented  among 
the  Anabaptists.  Campanus,  Servetus  and  the  Italian 
Anabaptists  1545  on;  in  Italy  persecuted  1551  on  they 
flee  to  Switzerland  and  Poland  where  they  establish 
work  at  Racov.  Laelius  and  Faustus  Socinus,  Their 
Christology.     Practiced  immersion, 


232  A  GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 


E.     ENGLISH  REFORMATION 

N.  ii.  248-91;  H.  ii.  364-443;  605-51;  K.  Sees.  139:4-6;  155; 
A.  iii.  329. 

General  Characteristics 

I.  It  was  confined  largely  to  England  and  has 
spread  only  with  the  spread  of  English-speaking 
people.  2.  It  had  no  predominant  leader  and  was  the 
resultant  of  various  forces ;  hence  lacked  thoroughness 
and  consistency  and  soon  began  to  split  into  denomina- 
tions. 3.  It  was  dominated  by  the  government,  poli- 
tical considerations  largely  controlling  its  course,  leav- 
ing church  completely  subservient  to  state.  4.  It  was 
the  least  radical  of  all  types,  preserving  more  of 
Medieval  Christianity  than  any  other.  5.  The  Cath- 
olic organization  was  preserved  without  change,  other 
than  the  king  becoming  head  of  the  church  in  lieu  of 
the  pope.  6.  Its  theology  (39  articles)  was  moder- 
ately Calvinistic,  on  Lutheran  basis;  Arminian  ele- 
ments early  appeared.  7.  Worship  (Book  of  Common 
Prayer)  was  a  modification  and  adaptation  of  parts 
of  the  Catholic  liturgy ;  more  Catholic  than  other  forms 
of  Protestantism. 

I.     Course  of  Reform 

I.  Political,  Religious  and  Social  Conditions. 
England,  a  strongly  centralized  government  with  a 
rough,  cruel  but  able  king,  Henry  VIII.  The  nobility 
had  been  ruined  by  "Wars  of  the  Roses'*  while  Henry 
VII  had  greatly  increased  the  power  and  wealth  of  the 
king.     The  church  was  subservient  to  the  state  and 


OF   CHURCH   HISTORY  233 

very  corrupt;  the  people  were  ignorant,  rude,  and 
superstitious,  but  rapidly  increasing  their  wealth  and 
improving  their  condition. 

2.  Reform  to  Death  of  Henry  VHI,  1547.  (i) 
Lollard  doctrines  had  continued  here  and  there.  (2) 
Work  of  Erasmus,  Colet,  More  and  others  had  intro- 
duced humanism  into  universities  and  cultured  circles. 
(3)  William  Tyndale's  translation  of  New  Testament 
appeared  1526  and  was  circulated  widely.  (4)  De- 
mand for  divorce  1526;  grounds  for  the  demand  and 
fall  of  Wolsey  and  (at  suggestion  of  Cranmer)  appeal 
to  universities  for  opinion  as  to  possibility  of  divorce 
1529.  Thos.  Cromwell  in  1530  advises  Henry  to 
declare  himself  head  of  the  church  and  create  courts 
which  could  grant  in  England  divorce;  difficulties  in 
way  of  pope,  political  and  ecclesiastical ;  steps  taken  to 
delay  proceedings. 

Right  of  independent  legislation  taken  from  Con- 
vocation, also  right  to  pay  annates  and  to  appeal  to 
Rome  1532;  all  papal  power  transferred  to  the  crown 
by  parliament,  divorce  granted  by  an  English  court 
and  marriage  with  Anne  Boleyn  1533;  Act  of  Su- 
premacy by  parliament  making  king  head  of  the  church 
1534;  opposition  forcibly  suppressed  (Thos.  More)  ; 
"Court  of  Star  Chamber" ;  suppression  of  the  monas- 
teries (1535-9)  and  confiscation  of  their  property  to 
the  king,  who  lavished  most  of  it  on  his  favorites  and 
personal  ends;  disastrous  to  the  poor;  destruction  of 
images  and  shrines  (Becket  at  Canterbury)  ;  England 
put  under  papal  interdict  1538.  (5)  All  this  was 
political,  but  Protestant  doctrines  were  making  prog- 
ress  also.     Anne   Boleyn,    Cranmer   and    Cromwell 


234  A   GUIDE   TO   THE   STUDY 

favored  reform ;  translation  and  circulation  by  Miles 
Coverdale  of  entire  Bible  allowed  I535f;  "Ten  Ar- 
ticles" 1536;  reading  Bible  encouraged  in  the  churches, 
1537.  Matthew's  Bible  1538;  "Great  Bible"  1539  set 
up  in  the  churches.  Reaction  begins  in  1539;  "six 
articles"  enforcing  transubstantiation,  communion  in 
bread  only,  celibacy  of  clergy,  private  masses,  con- 
fession. Fall  of  Cromwell  1540;  opposition  to  reform 
till  Henry's  death  which  left  the  Catholic  system  intact 
but  all  papal  powder  abolished. 

3.  Under  Edward  VI,  1547-53.  The  impulse  to 
reform  under  Henry  VIII  was  Lutheran;  under  Ed- 
ward Calvinistic.  Edward,  the  regents  and  advisers 
were  Protestants;  many  reformers  from  continent 
brought  over  to  assist  (Bucer,  Peter  Martyr,  Ochino, 
John  a  Lasco  and  others;  also  John  Knox),  (i)  All 
laws  against  evangelical  doctrines  were  now  repealed, 
images  were  removed  from  the  churches,  priestly  mar- 
riage permitted,  mass  abolished,  communion  in  both 
kinds  instituted;  (2)  English  liturgy,  "Book  of 
Common  Prayer"  drawn  up  in  1549,  and  imposed 
on  clergymen  under  heavy  penalties;  revised  in 
Protestant  direction  1552  and  imposed  on  all  English- 
men. (3)  A  Protestant  Creed,  "42  Articles,"  adopted 
1553,  was  Calvinistic.  Catholicism  suppressed  but  the 
masses  of  the  people  remained  Catholics. 

4.  Under  Mary^  1553-8.  All  laws  favoring  Prot- 
estantism immediately  repealed ;  many  Protestants  fled 
to  continent,  some  imprisoned  and  afterwards  mar- 
tyred (Latimer,  Ridley,  Hooper,  Cranmer  and 
others);  1554  England  was  absolved  and  formally 
received  back  into  Catholic  church  by  Reginald  Pole, 


OF  CHURCH  HISTORY  235 

papal  legate;  Mary  married  Philip  H  of  Spain,  who 
deserted  her  and  still  further  embittered  her;  279 
persons  martyred. 

5.  Under  Elizabeth,  15 58- 1603.  Daughter  of 
Anne  Boleyn,  reared  a  Protestant,  during  Mary's  reign 
living  as  Catholic,  was  crowned  by  Catholics  but 
speedily  showed  Protestant  sympathy  and  stopped  all 
persecution;  many  exiles  returned,  bringing  Calvin- 
istic  ideas.  The  official  Church  was  solidly  Catholic 
and  E.'s  position  was  difficult.  In  1559  all  anti-Prot- 
estant legislation  was  repealed,  that  of  Henry  was  re- 
vived, making  the  sovereign  "Supreme  Governor"  of 
the  church,  thus  again  cutting  England  loose  from  the 
papacy  and  giving  the  crown  great  authority  in 
spiritual  and  temporal  affairs  of  the  church.  A  new 
"Act  of  Uniformity,"  June,  1559,  forced  the  English 
prayer  book  (revised)  on  all  clergymen;  the  "42 
Articles"  were  revised  and  imposed  in  Latin  1563  as 
"the  39  Articles"  and  in  English  1571  (CC.  Ill  486- 
516) ;  all  but  one  bishop  and  many  of  the  lower  clergy 
refused  to  take  the  oath  of  supremacy  and  were  de- 
posed. Some  200  Catholics  were  martyred  during  the 
reign;  Catholics  founded  colleges  for  education  of 
English  priests  at  Douay,  Rheims  and  Rome  1 568  on ; 
Catholic  English  Bible,  Douay  Version,  N.  T.  1582, 
O.  T.  1 6 10;  various  conspiracies  against  Elizabeth; 
placed  under  the  ban  by  the  pope  1570;  execution  of 
Mary  Stuart  1587,  attack  by  Spanish  Armada  1588. 

Puritan  Party  due  to  Calvinism  brought  by  re- 
turning exiles  from  the  continent.  They  (a)  opposed 
episcopacy,  favoring  presbyterial  church  government 
as  divinely  ordained;  (b)  favored  simplicity  of  wor- 


236  A   GUIDE   TO  THE   STUDY 

ship,  opposing  vestments,  candles,  organs,  litany,  etc. ; 
(c)  urged  strict  discipline;  they  did  not  wish  to  separ- 
ate from  the  state  church  but  sometimes  refused  to 
conform  and  hence  were  called  nonconformists;  many 
of  them  were  able,  aggressive,  influential.  (Thos. 
Cartwright.)  From  this  party  rose  most  of  the  separa- 
tists ( Congregationalists  1578  on.  Baptists  161 1  on, 
Quakers  1646  on.  See  below).  At  first  Anglicans 
supported  episcopacy  as  a  human  institution  (dc  jure 
huniano,  Hooker's  Ecclesiastical  Polity) ;  later  held  it 
to  be  divinely  ordained  {de  jure  divino,  Bancroft). 
Elizabeth  succeeded  in  suppressing  Catholicism,  but 
Puritanism  was  growing  stronger  at  her  death. 
Lambeth  articles  1595  (CC.  HI  523-5) 

6.  Reign  of  James  I,  1603-25.  (i)  James  and  the 
Puritans.  Expectation  that  James,  a  Scotch  Calvinist, 
would  favor  them  led  the  Puritans  to  present  the 
''Millenary  Petition"  1603,  praying  for  relief;  the  king 
held  the  "Hampton  Court  conference,"  between  Angli- 
cans and  Puritans  Jan.,  1604;  Puritans  were  rebuffed, 
the  king  favoring  episcopacy ;  aided  by  the  "Court  of 
High  Commission,"  he  sought  to  suppress  them;  de- 
posed and  imprisoned  many.  (2)  James  and  Caths. 
Caths.  hoped  that  son  of  Catholic  Mary  Stuart  would 
favor  them,  but  he  was  forced  to  repress  them  and 
this  Incited  Gunpowder  Plot  1605.  King  James  ver- 
sion of  Bible  161 1 ;  "Book  of  Sports"  1618;  less  rigor 
toward  Puritans  because  of  Archbishop  Abbott,  and 
toward  Catholics  for  political  reasons,  later  in  his 
reign.  Flight  of  many  "separatists"  to  the  continent 
1605  onwards. 

7.  Charles  I,   1625-49.     Charles  married  Maria, 


OF   CHURCH  HISTORY  237 

daughter  of  Henry  IV  of  France,  and  was  favorable 
to  Catholics;  believed  in  divine  right  and  absolute 
authority  of  kings;  ruled  without  parliament  1629-40. 
Wm.  Laud  (1573- 1645),  typical  high  churchman, 
bishop  of  St.  Davids  1621,  Bath  and  Wells  1626,  Lon- 
don 1628,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  1633;  Privy 
Councilor  1627,  Chancellor  of  Oxford  1629,  was  under 
Charles  all  powerful;  labored  to  enforce  rigid  high 
church  principles  on  both  England  and  Scotland ;  emi- 
gration of  Puritans  to  America;  bitter  persecution 
through  "Star  Chamber"  and  "Court  of  High  Com- 
mission." 

Resistance  by  the  people  in  the  interest  of  both  reli- 
gious and  civil  freedom;  "ship  money"  and  John 
Hampden  1637;  Scotch  rebellion  and  National  Cove- 
nant 1638;  to  obtain  money  to  suppress  it  Charles 
called  parliament  1640.  Proving  intractable  it  was 
dismissed  and  another  called  1640  (Long  Parliament 
1640-60);  soon  at  war  with  the  king;  Strafford  and 
Laud  convicted  of  treason  and  executed  1641  and 
1645  J  ii^  order  to  secure  help  of  the  Scotch,  Parliament 
accepted  "Solemn  League  and  Covenant"  1643,  which 
involved  preservation  of  Presbyterianism  in  Scotland 
and  its  adoption  in  England  and  Ireland;  Parliament 
called  "Westminster  Assembly"  for  advice,  July  i, 
1643;  sat  to  Feb.  22,  1649;  moderate  Anglicans,  Puri- 
tans, Independents  and  Scotch  divines  invited ;  Presby- 
terians predominated;  produced  a  Longer  and  a 
Shorter  Catechism  as  means  for  religious  instruction; 
(CC.  Ill  676-703)  the  Westminster  Confession  (CC 
III  597-673)  and  a  new  church  order;  these  were 
adopted    as    their    symbols    by    the    Scotch    General 


238  A   GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 

Assembly  Aug.  27,  1647,  and  by  the  Scotch  ParHament 
Feb.  7,  1649;  by  the  EngHsh  Parliament  in  revised 
form  June,  1648,  but  they  were  never  widely  enforced 
on  England  and  never  adopted  in  Ireland.  Defeated 
at  Marston  Moor  (1644)  and  Naseby  1645  (Oliver 
Cromwell)  Charles  fled  to  the  Scots,  was  delivered 
to  Parliament  1647;  Cromwell  expels  the  Presbyterian 
members,  leaving  the  "Rump  Parliament"  and  defeats 
the  Scots  who  invade  England  on  behalf  of  the  king 
(1648) ;  executes  the  king  (1649). 

8.  Commonwealth,  1649-59.  England  becomes  a 
republic  while  Scotland  and  Ireland  recognize  and 
crown  Charles  II  (1651);  Cromwell  puts  down  this 
rebellion  in  Ireland  and  Scotland,  expelling  Charles  II 
and  in  1653  dissolves  Parliament  becoming  Lord  Pro- 
tector and  ruling  alone;  successful  war  with  the 
Netherlands  and  Spain ;  order  at  home,  honor  abroad ; 
Cromwell  gave  religious  freedom  to  all  except  Cath- 
olics and  Unitarians,  allowed  no  established  church, 
sought  to  raise  the  efficiency  and  character  of  preach- 
ers (Board  of  Triers),  and  supported  all  good  minis- 
ters from  the  state  treasury;  protected  Protestants 
abroad. 

9.  Under  Charles  II  (1660-85)  and  James  II 
(1685-9).  (N.  ii.  624-30;  H.  ii.  652-9;  K.  Sec. 
155.)  A  few  months  after  Cromwell's  death  Charles 
was  invited  to  take  the  throne;  weak  and  immoral; 
had  promised  toleration  (^'Declaration  of  Breda"),  but 
gave  way  before  pressure  of  Anglican  party;  restor- 
ation of  Episcopacy  in  England  1660,  followed  by 
severe  persecution  of  all  dissent!  ( i )  Corporation  Act 
1661,  excluding  dissenters  from  local  governments; 


OF  CHURCH  HISTORY  239 

(2)  Act  of  Uniformity  1662,  excluding  dissent  from 
church  and  schools  and  ousting  some  2,cxx)  ministers ; 

(3)  Conventicle  Act  1664  suppressing  private  wor- 
ship; (4)  Five  Mile  Act  1665.  In  order  to  spare  the 
Catholics  the  king  made  "Declaration  of  Indulgence" 
1672;  Parliament  answered  with  (5)  Test  Act  1673, 
excluding  Catholics  from  civil,  military  and  naval  posi- 
tions; efforts  of  the  king  to  help  Catholics  were  vain. 
He  joined  Catholic  church  on  his  death  bed  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  brother  James  II,  a  Catholic. 

Efforts  to  favor  Catholics  (Declaration  of  Freedom 
of  Conscience  1687;  trial  of  the  seven  bishops  1688) 
led  Protestants  to  invite  William  of  Orange,  grandson 
of  Charles  I  and  son-in-law  of  James  II,  stateholder 
of  the  Netherlands  and  a  Protestant,  to  take  the 
throne;  this  he  did  1688  (William  and  Mary)  ;  Act  of 
Toleration  (1689)  gave  religious  liberty  to  all  except 
Catholics  and  Socinians;  but  dissenters  were  still  ex- 
cluded from  the  exercise  of  political  rights,  were 
required  to  pay  tithes  and  other  church  dues  to  the 
Anglican  clergy,  and  their  preachers  must  sign  the  39 
Articles  with  reservations.  Protestantism  was  now 
firmly  and  finally  established  in  England,  though  many 
of  the  clergy,  including  nine  bishops,  refused  to  swear 
allegiance  to  the  new  king  (non- jurors)  and  in  1691 
were  deposed.  They  kept  up  an  independent  organiza- 
tion until  1805. 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  period  were  several  men 
of  note:  Wm.  Chillingworth,  d.  1644;  Ralph  Cud- 
worth,  d.  1688;  John  Tillotson,  d.  1694  and  Gilbert 
Burnet,  d.  171 5. 

Morals  of  England  were  low  under  Charles  and 


240  A  GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 

James.  The  stage  and  literature  utterly  debased;  due 
to  reaction  against  Puritanism,  influence  of  a  corrupt 
court,  exclusion  and  suppression  of  dissent,  growing 
skepticism. 

II.     Rise  of  the  Denominations 

English  Protestantism  soon  began  to  break  up  into 
denominations. 

I.  Independents  or  Congregationalists.  (H. 
ii.  675-90.)  Anabaptists  had  existed  in  E.  England 
since  c.  1530,  and  probably  exerted  some  influence  on 
this  movement.  It  came  out  of  the  Puritan  party,  was 
Calvinistic  in  theology  and  Christian  life,  but  believed 
in  separation  from  Church  of  England,  in  religious 
freedom,  converted  church  membership  and  the  inde- 
pendence of  local  church  as  a  self-governing  demo- 
cratic body  of  believers.  Their  founder  was  Robert 
Browne  (c.  1550 — c.  1630),  hence  long  called  Brown- 
ists.  About  1578  Browne  reached  the  conclusion  that 
the  apostolic  church  was  ( i )  a  local  independent  body 
exercising  all  ecclesiastical  authority;  (2)  its  govern- 
ment was  democratic;  (3)  it  was  composed  of  believ- 
ers only;  (4)  that  magistrates  have  no  power  in  reli- 
gious matters;  the  church  is  independent  of  the  state 
as  well  as  of  other  churches.  The  state  has  no  reli- 
gious and  the  church  no  secular  functions.  He  formed 
a  congregation  at  Norwich,  but  fled  with  them  to 
Middleburg,  Zeeland,  1581,  where  he  wrote  several 
tracts  sustaining  the  above  positions;  returning  to 
Scotland  1583  and  to  England  soon  afterward  he  re- 
united with  Anglican  church  (1586),  dying  in  its 
communion. 


OF  CHURCH  HISTORY  241 

A  second  congregation  ( Presbyterial  local  govern- 
ment) founded  in  London  1586  by  John  Greenwood, 
Henry  Barrowe;  these  men  with  John  Penry  were 
executed  and  congregation  scattered  1593;  Francis 
Johnson,  converted  1593,  led  several  "Separatists"  to 
Amsterdam  where  he  labored  along  with  Henry  Ains- 
worth;  a  third  congregation  was  founded  at  Gains- 
borough under  John  Smyth  1602  and  at  Scrooby  under 
Jno.  Robinson.  In  1606  Smyth  and  his  people  fled 
to  Amsterdam  and  soon  afterward  Robinson  and  the 
Scrooby  flock  to  Leyden.  Some  of  the  latter  emi- 
grated to  New  England  1620  (Pilgrim  Fathers,  May- 
flower), and  the  rest  died  in  Holland  or  returned  to 
England. 

In  1616  Henry  Jacob  returned  from  Middleburg, 
Zeeland,  to  revive  Congregational  work  in  London. 
His  church  became  the  "mother  church"  of  Congre- 
gationalism in  England.  Other  churches  arose,  but 
growth  was  slow  until  the  Civil  War  when  under 
Cromwell  they  controlled  the  government  and  grew 
rapidly.  At  invitation  of  Cromwell  200  delegates 
from  120  congregations  gathered  at  the  Savoy  in 
London  (Sept.  29-Oct.  12,  1658)  and  drew  up  the 
great  Congregational  creed,  "Savoy  Declaration" 
(CC.  Ill  707-29).  It  is  a  revision  and  adaptation  of 
the  Westminster  Confession.  Persecution  after  the 
restoration  till  1689  when  they  obtained  toleration. 

2.  Baptists.  (H.  ii.  691-704;  N.  ii.  681-91.) 
English  Baptists,  long  called  Anabaptists  by  their 
opponents,  sprang  out  of  the  Congregationalists, 
though  they  may  have  had  some  connection,  not  now 
traceable,  with  Dutch  Anabaptists  (Mennonites)  set- 


242  A   GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 

tied  in  England  since  c.  1530.  There  were  two  distinct 
types,  differing  in  theology  and  slightly  in  other  re- 
spects : 

(i)  '* General  Baptists/'  who  rose  among  English 
Congregationalists  in  Amsterdam  and  were  Arminian 
in  theology,  believing  in  a  "general"  atonement;  John 
Smyth,  who  with  his  Gainsborough  congregation  had 
fled  to  Amsterdam  1606,  became  convinced  of  the 
unscripturalness  of  infant  baptism  about  1608,  bap- 
tized himself  (probably  by  affusion)  and  then  such  of 
his  congregation  as  agreed  with  him,  including  Helwys 
and  Morton.  They  also  adopted  Arminian  theology 
which  was  agitated  at  this  time  in  Holland.  Soon  con- 
vinced that  he  had  acted  improperly  in  view  of  the 
presence  of  Mennonite  churches,  Smyth  sought  bap- 
tism at  the  hands  of  the  Mennonites,  while  Morton, 
Helwys  and  others  maintained  the  validity  of  their 
baptism  received  at  his  hands.  The  two  parties  split; 
Smyth's  party  was  finally  received  into  the  Mennonite 
church,  while  Helwys  and  his  party  in  161 1  drew  up 
the  so-called  first  Baptist  Confession  of  faith  (B.  C.  F. 
85-93).  Returning  to  England  Morton  and  Helwys 
founded  the  General  Baptist  cause. 

They  grew  slowly  amid  great  hardship,  advocating 
freedom  of  conscience,  general  atonement  and  the 
salvation  of  all  infants  dying  in  infancy.  In  1660 
they  claim  30,000  members.  It  is  not  known  when 
they  began  the  practice  of  immersion. 

(2)  Particular  Baptists  sprang  out  of  the  First 
Congregational  church  of  London  (Jacob's,  see  above) 
when  on  Sept.  12,  1633,  John  Spilsbury  and  a  few 
others  withdrew  and  formed  a  new  church  on  the 


OF   CHURCH   HISTORY  243 

basis  of  believers'  baptism.  Source  and  form  of  bap- 
tism not  certainly  known,  though  it  was  probably 
affusion;  1638  seven  other  persons  left  the  Congrega- 
tional church  and  joined  Spilsbury's  church.  About 
1640  they  became  convinced  that  immersion  was  the 
only  Scriptural  form  of  baptism;  a  part,  insisting  on 
succession,  sent  Richard  Blount  to  Holland  to  procure 
baptism  in  1641  where  there  was  a  party  who  im- 
mersed believers;  others  denying  the  necessity  of  suc- 
cession revived  baptism  by  one  baptizing  another,  who 
in  turn  baptized  the  rest.  This  was  probably  in  1641. 
By  1644  there  were  in  London  seven  churches  which 
drew  up  the  first  Calvinistic  Baptist  Confession  (B.  C. 
F.  168-189) ;  under  Cromwell  they  were  numerous 
and  influential  in  the  army  and  government.  Perse- 
cuted under  Charles  H  and  James  II  (John  Bunyan) ; 
they  received  freedom  in  1689,  and  in  that  year  107 
congregations  in  England  and  Wales  united  in  adopt- 
ing the  best  known  Baptist  confession,  which  is  an 
adaptation  made  in  1677  ^^  the  Westminster  Con- 
fession (B.  C.  F.  215-89). 

3.  Society  of  Friends  or  Quakers  (H.  il.  705- 
15;  N.  ii.  709f)  sprang  out  of  the  Puritan  wing  of 
the  Anglican  church.  Geo.  Fox  (1624-91),  son  of 
a  weaver  in  Leicestershire,  pensive,  serious,  was  led, 
after  powerful  religious  experience,  to  accept  Christ 
(1646)  and  began  preaching  as  layman  (1647)  ;  em- 
phasized the  "inner  light"  of  the  Spirit,  rejected  oaths, 
war,  civil  office,  the  ordinances,  creeds,  consecrated 
houses,  ordination,  all  formal  services,  paid  preachers ; 
showed  peculiarities  of  dress  and  language;  opposed 
capital  punishment  and  slavery,  urged  prison  reform, 


244  A  GUIDE  TO  THE  STUDY 

etc.;  insisted  powerfully  on  holy  living;  he  and  his 
followers  showed  wonderful  missionary  zeal,  growing 
rapidly  in  England  despite  severe  persecution,  and 
carrying  the  "light"  to  the  continent  and  to  America ; 
field  preaching  and  women  preachers.  Organized  into 
(i)  monthly,  (2)  quarterly  and  (3)  yearly  meetings. 
Robt.  Barclay,  the  theologian  of  Quakerism;  Wm. 
Penn.  Quakers  were  never  numerous  (few  outside 
great  Britain  and  United  States),  but  of  high  charac- 
ter and  influential.  Summary  of  beliefs  by  Barclay  in 
1675  (CC.  Ill  789-98). 

III.     Reformation  of  Ireland 

H.  ii.  478-99;  K.  Sec.  139  7,  Sec.  153-6;  A.  iii.  331. 
The  woes  of  Ireland  began  long  before  the  Refor- 
mation; Protestant  England  is  guilty  only  of  perpetuat- 
ing what  Catholic  England  had  long  been  doing. 
Ireland  rejected  Protestantism  because  it  came  from 
England.  In  general  the  official  legal  reformation  of 
Ireland  followed  that  of  England,  while  the  masses 
of  the  people  remained  staunchly  Catholic.  By  act  of 
the  Irish  Parliament  Henry  VIII  was  made  head  of 
the  church  1535,  monasteries  were  dissolved  and 
ecclesiastical  property  divided  among  English  and 
Irish  lords  as  far  as  English  authority  extended,  i.  e.,  in 
the  "Pale.'*  Under  Edward  VI  there  was  an  attempt  to 
introduce  the  new  Protestant  English  liturgy,  articles, 
etc.,  but  these  efforts  were  resisted  with  vigor.  Mary 
restored  the  Catholic  church  in  Ireland  as  in  England. 
Under  Elizabeth  the  Anglican  church  was  again  offi- 
cially established  as  far  as  English  authority  extended ; 
but  little  was  done  to  convert  the  people  to  Protestant 


OF  CHURCH  HISTORY  245 

views.  A  few  Bibles  in  English  sold,  an  Irish  cate- 
chism and  primer  published  1571,  the  Prayer  Book  in 
Irish  in  1603,  and  New  Testament  in  Irish  1608,  but 
the  religious  and  moral  conditions  remained  the  same. 
Under  James  I  and  Charles  I  the  Jesuits  were  sup- 
pressed, the  Irish  lords  ruined,  all  church  property 
turned  over  to  Anglican  church  and  all  Catholics  were 
made  ineligible  to  civil  office.  This  occasioned  the 
massacre  of  thousands  of  Protestants  (Irish  Mas- 
sacre) 1641 ;  in  1649  Cromwell  took  terrible  vengeance 
and  subdued  the  entire  island  to  English  rule.  Under 
Charles  II  and  James  II  Irish  Catholics  suffered  as  did 
the  English,  and  the  Acts  of  Toleration  1689  left  them 
without  civil  rights,  though  persecution  ceased.  Irish 
Articles  (C.C.  III.  526-44). 


246  A   GUIDE   TO   THE   STUDY 


F.    COUNTER  (CATHOLIC)  REFORMATION. 

References:  N.  ii.  35o-8g;  H.  ii.  529-49;  K.  Sec.  149:1-12,  151; 
A.  iii.  342-48. 

For  twenty-five  years  after  outbreak  of  Reforma- 
tion Cath.  church  took  no  effective  measures  to  stop 
its  progress;  seemed  dazed.  All  effective  opposition 
came  from  Catholic  princes.  Compromise  and  reunion 
efforts  were  frequent  (Hagenau  1540,  Worms  1540, 
Regensburg  1541).  But  c.  1541  it  began  earnest 
efforts  to  meet  Protestantism.  Object  was  (a)  to  re- 
form the  church  in  head  and  members  as  to  morals, 
(b)  stop  the  progress  of  Protestantism,  (c)  recover 
lost  territory,  (d)  win  the  heathen.  The  means  were 
(a)  Council  of  Trent,  (b)  revival  of  monasticism, 
and  specially  the  founding  of  the  Jesuits,  (c)  reorgani- 
zation and  enlargement  of  the  Inquisition  and  estab- 
lishment of  the  "Index  of  prohibited  books."  This 
counter-reformation  continued  for  more  than  a  cen- 
tury, recovered  much  lost  ground,  brought  on  Thirty 
Years'  War.  It  did  not  in  any  way  modify  the  policy 
or  doctrines  of  the  Catholic  church,  but  removed  many 
abuses,  crystallized  its  doctrines  and  gave  it  a  great 
forward  impulse. 

I.     Means  Employed 

I.  Council  of  Trent.  A  free  ecumenical  council, 
long  demanded  by  Protestants  and  Catholics,  especially 
the  Emperor,  and  frequently  promised  by  popes,  and 
as  often  postponed  by  them  now  met  in  German  city 


OF  CHURCH  HISTORY  247 

of  Trent  in  three  periods,  Dec.  13,  1545-March  11, 
1547;  May  I,  1551-April  28,  1552;  Jan.  18,  1562- 
Dec.  4,  1563.  Small  attendance  till  toward  close; 
almost  exclusively  Latin,  largely  Italian,  bishops ;  con- 
trolled by  papal  legates  and  papal  theologians  (two 
Jesuits  Lainez  and  Salmeron).  Protestants  refused 
to  attend  though  invited.  Emperor  wished  it  to  con- 
sider reforms,  pope  wished  it  to  formulate  doctrines 
to  meet  Protestantism.  Compromised  by  considering 
doctrines  and  reforms  in  alternate  sessions.  It  (a) 
ordered  many  reforms  of  clergy,  which  were,  how- 
ever, never  fully  enforced,  and  never  touched  pope  or 
curia;  ordered  seminaries  for  priests,  visitations  by 
bishops,  urged  preaching  and  teaching  by  priests,  de- 
fined rights  and  duties  of  pastors,  etc.,  and  (b)  formu- 
lated its  doctrines  in  "Tridentine  Creed"  (CC.  II  yy- 
206)  which  is  summed  up  in  the  Profession  of  the 
Tridentine  Faith  (CC.  II  207-10;  I.  gSf)  which  must 
be  signed  by  all  Catholic  priests  and  professors.  It 
is  the  distinctive  and  most  important  Catholic  creed; 
drawn  to  meet  Protestantism.  Its  final  interpretation 
was  reserved  to  the  pope,  thus  putting  its  meaning  in 
hands  of  papacy. 

2.  Monastic  Revival.  Every  reform  in  Catholic 
church  has  been  accomplished  by  a  revival  of  monasti- 
cism.  The  Reformation  brought  revival  of  old  orders 
and  formation  of  new  ones.  Most  important  new  ones 
were  (a)  Theatines,  founded  1524  to  cultivate  piety 
of  the  clergy  and  fight  heretics;  (b)  Barnabites, 
founded  for  charitable  work,  teaching  and  care  of 
souls,  (c)  Capuchines,  founded  1528,  devoted  to  popu- 
lar preaching ;  voluntarily  placed  themselves  under  the 


248  A  GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 

bishops,  (d)  Ursulines,  founded  1537  for  teaching 
and  for  care  of  sick.  Several  other  less  important 
orders  of  men  and  of  women. 

(e)  Jesuit  order.  But  the  most  important  of  all 
orders  was  the  Jesuits.  ( i )  Its  founder  was  Ignatius 
Loyola  (i49i-i556),a  Spanish  soldierof  noble  family. 
Permanently  disabled  by  a  wound  at  Pampalona  1521 
he  turned  to  religion,  became  a  monk,  studied  in  Alcala 
and  Salamanca  in  Spain  and  University  of  Paris, 
where  in  1534  he  founded  a  society  of  young  men 
(Loyola,  Faber,  Lainez,  Salmeron,  Xavier,  Rodri- 
guez) to  go  on  mission  work  to  Palestine.  Hindered 
by  war,  they  labored  in  Venice  1537,  went  to  Rome 
1539,  where  they  were  organized  as  an  order  Sept. 
2y,  1540,  taking  ordinary  monastic  vows  and  the  addi- 
tional vow  to  go  on  whatever  mission  the  pope  might 
wish.  Loyola  wrote  the  "Spiritual  Exercises"  and  the 
"Constitution." 

(2)  Constitution.  Members  divided  into  four 
grades  (classes),  (a)  novices,  (b)  scholars,  (c)  co- 
adjutors (temporal,  spiritual),  (d)  professed  (three 
vows,  four  vows).  Last  three  classes  are  priests. 
Professed  of  four  vows  constitute  the  "Congregation" 
who  alone  conduct  the  business  and  are  eligible  to 
the  offices  of  the  society.  The  officers  are  (a)  a  Gen- 
eral (black  pope)  elected  for  life,  with  six  assistants, 
residing  at  Rome,  receiving  reports  from  all  officers 
and  being  almost  absolute,  (b)  Provincials,  presi- 
dents, professors,  etc.,  appointed  by  the  General  for 
three  years. 

(3)  The  Training  is  very  thorough,  lasting  some 
thirty  years  for  the  "professed."    Applicants  must  be 


OF   CHURCH  HISTORY  249 

fourteen  years  old,  sound  in  mind  and  body ;  they  are 
trained  by  study  and  teaching  in  languages,  the  arts 
and  finally  in  theology,  the  effort  being  to  make  a 
scholarly  modern  gentleman,  absolutely  obedient  to 
his  superiors,  cosmopolitan  in  his  knowledge  and 
capabilities.    No  distinctive  dress  is  required. 

(4)  Aims  and  Methods.  Their  motto,  "For  the 
greater  glory  of  God;"  the  recovery  of  lands  lost  to 
Protestantism  and  Mohammedanism,  and  the  conver- 
sion of  the  heathen — world-wide  triumph  of  the  Ro- 
man church.  To  accomplish  this  they  (a)  preached, 
(b)  gave  great  attention  to  higher  education,  founding 
colleges,  and  wherever  possible  becoming  professors 
in  existing  schools,  (c)  used  the  confessional,  (d)  and 
political  intrigue. 

(5)  Ethical  System.  Strict  moralists  themselves 
they  threw  down  all  restraint  for  their  rich  patrons, 
(a)  Their  doctrine  of  obedience  destroys  man's  moral 
nature,  (b)  End  justifies  the  means,  (c)  Probabil- 
ism.     (d)  Intention,     (e)  Mental  reservation. 

(6)  Their  History.  They  introduced  themselves 
rapidly  into  all  countries  of  Europe,  showed  heroic 
devotion  and  fanatical  zeal  for  the  church,  quickly 
made  themselves  felt  among  upper  and  ruling  classes 
through  their  schools  and  the  confessional,  won  back 
many  Protestants  and  moved  princes  to  suppress 
others;  started  the  great  reaction  and  were  its  main 
support. 

As  missionaries  in  far  East  (Xavier)  and  the  newly 
discovered  Americas  they  unfolded  wonderful  activity, 
courage  and  devotion;  for  a  time  highly  successful, 
but  eventually  the  work  fell  to  pieces  because  of  its 


250  A  GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 

superficial  character.  Their  theology  has  been  semi- 
Pelagian  and  Pelagian ;  they  have  fostered  Mariolatry 
and  superstition;  have  been  banished  by  various  gov- 
ernments and  generally  distrusted;  have  been  the 
earnest  advocates  of  the  infallibility  and  irresponsible 
power  of  the  pope,  the  chief  supporters  of  ultramon- 
tanism,  reaction  and  superstition  in  the  last  century. 

3.  The  Inquisition  was  reorganized  in  Italy  1541 
by  Caraffa  and  speedily  suppressed  Protestants  in  all 
the  states  of  the  peninsula;  Council  of  Trent  drew  up 
list  of  prohibited  books  1562,  and  the  Congregation  of 
the  Index  was  founded  1571. 

In  1566  appeared  the  Roman  Catechism  for  instruc- 
tion of  priests;  later  the  Roman  Breviary  a  collection 
of  brief  prayers  for  public  and  common  use,  and  the 
Roman  Missal  the  basis  for  the  liturgy  of  the  sacra- 
ments. 

II.     Course  of  Counter  Reformation 

The  Jesuits  soon  entered  most  of  the  countries  of 
Europe,  and  with  wonderful  zeal  and  success  labored 
for  the  conversion  of  Protestants,  at  the  same  time 
moving  princes  to  suppress  Protestantism  by  force 
wherever  possible.  They  labored  in  Spain,  Portugal, 
France  where  they  were  largely  responsible  for  the 
wars  and  bitter  persecutions  of  i6th  and  17th  cen- 
turies; in  Belgium,  England,  Poland,  Sweden,  Ger- 
many and  Austria ;  while  Catholicism  was  united  and 
enthusiastic,  Lutherans  had  become  divided  and  were 
engaged  in  bitter  theological  strife.  By  teaching  and 
preaching,  by  moving  the  Hapsburg  and  Bavarian 
princes  to  repressive  measures,  they  finally  brought  on 
the 


OF   CHURCH   HISTORY  251 

THIRTY  YEARS'  WAR 

N.  ii.  390-411;  H.  ii.  550-6;  A.  iii.  354-356. 

Archduke  Ferdinand  restored  Catholicism  in  Styria 
1596  on;  Donauworth  a  free  city  was  cathoHcized  by 
Maximilian  of  Bavaria  1607  contrary  to  Peace  of 
Augsburg;  formation  of  W.  German  princes  into 
Evangelical  Union  (1608)  under  leadership  of  Fred- 
erick, Elector  of  the  Palatinate;  formation  of  Catholic 
League  under  leadership  of  Maximilian  of  Bavaria 
(1609),  composed  of  Hapsburg,  Bavarian  and  ecclesi- 
astical princes,  supported  by  pope  and  Spain.  Em- 
peror Rudolph  II  attempts  to  suppress  Protestants  in 
Bohemia  and  Silesia,  and  is  forced  to  grant  them  reli- 
gious liberty  and  a  body  of  Defenders  by  Royal 
Charter  (1609).  16 17  Ferdinand  of  Styria  became 
king  of  Bohemia  and  began  attempt  to  suppress 
Protestants.  They  appeal  to  the  Emperor,  and  being 
rebuffed,  cast  the  imperial  ministers  out  of  the  window 
and  begin  the  war  161 8. 

I.  First  stage  (1618-23),  chiefly  in  Bohemia.  Bo- 
hemian Protestants  were  helped  by  Evangelical  Union ; 
the  Emperor  and  Ferdinand  by  the  Catholic  League; 
1619  Ferdinand  was  elected  Emperor,  and  Frederick 
of  the  Palatinate  king  of  Bohemia;  Protestants  were 
divided  and  defeated  by  Tilly;  Frederick  lost  the 
crown  of  Bohemia  and  the  electoral  dignity  was  trans- 
ferred to  Maximilian  of  Bavaria  1623,  while  Bohemia 
was  rapidly  re-Catholicised;  Protestants,  who  were 
eighty  per  cent  of  the  , population,  being  destroyed 
or  won  over  to  Catholicism;  so  in  Austria,  Palatinate 
and  Silesia. 


252  A  GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 

2.  Second  stage  (1623-30),  chiciiy  in  Germany. 
Mans f eld  and  Christian  of  Brunswick  keep  up  the 
struggle  while  England,  France,  Denmark  and  Sweden 
seek  to  form  league  against  Catholics.  During  the 
long  negotiations  Wallenstein,  Bohemian  general  of 
the  Emperor,  and  Tilly,  general  of  the  Catholic  League, 
overran  all  N.  Germany,  reaching  the  Baltic,  Denmark 
alone  assisting  the  Germans;  1629  the  emperor  decreed 
the  restoration  of  church  property  in  Germany  to  the 
condition  obtaining  at  Peace  of  Augsburg  1555  (Edict 
of  Restitution),  which  would  have  ruined  Protestant- 
ism. 

3.  Third  stage  (1630-5)  in  Germany,  Protes- 
tant princes,  now  more  strongly  united,  were  assisted 
by  France  (Richelieu)  and  Sweden  (Gustavus  Adol- 
phus).  Wonderful  success  of  the  latter,  overrunning 
all  Germany  by  1631.  Tilly  destroyed  Magdeburg 
(1631),  was  defeated  at  Leipsic  (1631)  and  slain 
at  Donauworth  ( 1631 ) .  Gustavus  Adolphus  and  Pap- 
penheim  killed  in  battle  of  Liitzen  Nov.  16,  1632; 
Wallenstein  deposed  and  murdered  1634.  In  Peace 
of  Prague  (1635)  electors  of  Saxony  and  Branden- 
burg and  some  other  Protestant  princes  make  peace 
with  Emperor  with  purpose  of  driving  out  of  Ger- 
many the  Swedes  who  were  appropriating  German 
territory. 

4.  Fourth  stage  (1635-48),  almost  wholly  politi- 
cal. All  Germany  overrun  many  times  by  Swedish, 
French  and  German  troops.  War  brought  to  a  close 
by  Peace  of  Westphalia  (Osnabriick  and  Munster) 
1648,  in  which  Sweden  received  five  million  thalers 
and  land  in  N.  Germany ;  France  received  land  on  left 


OF  CHURCH  HISTORY  253 

bank  of  Rhine;  Switzerland  and  the  Netherlands  were 
recognized  as  independent — both  Protestant ;  many  in- 
ternal changes  in  Empire  practically  destroyed  it. 

In  religious  things  Peace  of  Augsburg  (1555)  was 
in  the  main  confirmed  and  now  extended  to  Calvinists ; 
it  was  modified  so  as  to  permit  Protestant  subjects  of 
a  Catholic  prince  to  remain  with  full  rights  in  the 
land  provided  their  faith  dated  back  to  1624;  other- 
wise they  could  be  tolerated  or  expelled  as  the  prince 
might  elect,  same  true  as  to  Catholics  under  Protes- 
tant princes ;  Lutherans  and  Calvinists  were  to  tolerate 
each  other.  As  regards  ecclesiastical  property  the  year 
1624  was  regarded  as  normal;  i.  e.,  the  status  quo  of 
1624  was  restored,  leaving  vast  quantities  of  Catholic 
property  in  hands  of  Protestants. 

Important  results  of  the  war  were  (i)  almost  total 
destruction  of  Protestantism  in  S.  Germany,  Bohemia, 
Poland,  Hungary,  etc.;  (2)  desolation  of  N.  Germany, 
setting  back  progress  for  years;  (3)  formal  recogni- 
tion of  Calvinism  as  a  legal  religion  of  the  Empire; 
(4)  Catholics  forced  to  recognize  impossibility  of 
coercing  Protestants;  (5)  establishment  of  two  new 
Protestant  states. 

III.    Internal  Development  of  Catholic  Church 
TO  1648 

H.  ii.  563-71;  A.  iii.  349-53;  K.  Sec.  149-150. 
I.  Missions.  Active  mission  work  among  the 
heathen  by  Jesuits,  Dominicans,  Franciscans  and  other 
orders.  In  India  and  Japan  great  success  by  Xavier 
1542  on;  in  China  by  Ricci;  among  the  Indians  of 
South  America,  Cuba,  Central  America  and  the  south- 


254  A   GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 

ern  and  western  parts  of  North  America,  and  in  the 
Phihppines.  Congregation  of  the  Propaganda  estab- 
Hshed  in  Rome  1622,  and  the  college  of  the  Propa- 
ganda 1627.  Various  attempts  at  union  with  the 
Greek,  Russian,  Nestorian  and  other  churches  of  the 
Orient  failed  or  were  only  partially  successful. 

2.  Theology.  The  Reformation  saw  a  great  decay 
of  Catholic  theology,  but  a  revival  began  about  1650 
and  produced  an  enormous  theological  literature, 
chiefly  by  Jesuits  and  other  orders,  and  dealing  with 
all  phases  of  theology,  but  especially  dogmatics,  church 
history  and  exegesis.  Some  of  the  best  known  theo- 
logians were  Robt.  Bellarmine  of  Tuscany  (1542- 
1621),  a  Jesuit,  most  noted  theologian  of  his  church; 
Petavius  of  Orleans,  d.  1652,  a  Jesuit;  Baronius  d. 
1607;  a  host  of  writers  in  France,  Spain,  Italy  and 
Germany  on  exegetical,  dogmatic,  pastoral,  practical 
and  ascetic  theology. 

The  reformation  also  started  a  controversy  in  Cath- 
olic church  over  original  sin,  free-will,  relation  of 
works  to  grace,  etc.  Michael  Bains,  professor  in  Lou- 
vain  after  1551,  attacked  the  scholastic  method,  sup- 
porting his  views  by  texts  from  Scripture  and  from 
Augustine ;  seventy-nine  of  his  propositions  condemned 
by  pope  1567.  His  rapidly  spreading  views  vehem- 
ently opposed  by  Jesuits,  some  of  whose  views  were 
in  turn  condemned  as  semi-Pelagian. 

Louis  Molina,  Spanish  Jesuit,  in  trying  to  harmonize 
(1588)  the  two  views,  set  forth  Pelagianism,  and 
thus  revived  the  struggle  between  Dominicans  and 
Jesuits.  A  commission  appointed  1599  to  determine 
relation  of  grace  to  conversion,  was  never  allowed  to 


OF   CHURCH   HISTORY  255 

report,  and  both  parties  were  enjoined  to  silence  by 
pope  161 1 ;  Jesuits  adopted  view  of  congruous  and  in- 
congruous grace  161 3. 

Cornelius  Jansen  (1585-1638),  professor  in  Lou- 
vain  and  bishop  of  Ypres,  studied  Augustine  thor- 
oughly, and  left  behind  him  a  book  called  Augustinus, 
advocating  the  doctrine  of  human  inability  and  irre- 
sistible grace.  This  was  published  1640,  and  pro- 
voked the  violent  opposition  of  the  Jesuits.  Con- 
demned 1642.  Controversy  spread  to  France.  (See 
next  period.) 

3.  Art  and  Music.  Degeneration  of  church  archi- 
tecture into  Rococo  style;  painting  flourishes,  but 
gradually  decays:  Corregio  (1494- 15  34),  Titian 
(1477-1576),  Guido  Reni  (1575-1642)  and  others  in 
Italy ;  Velasquez  (1599-1660),  Murillo  (1617-82)  and 
others  in  Spain;  Rembrandt  (1606-69),  Rubens 
( 1 577-1640),  Van  Dyke  (i 599-1 641)  and  others  in 
the  Netherlands.  Art  was  still  largely  religious  and 
in  the  service  of  the  Church. 


256  A  GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 


SECOND  DIVISION,  1648  TO  1789 
A.     Eastern  Christianity 

Within  the  Mohammedan  dominions  there  were  no 
changes  of  any  moment  in  this  period. 

In  Russia  was  much  progress.  Peter  the  Great 
(1689-1725)  labored  to  Westernize  his  people;  edu- 
cation, emancipation  of  woman,  improved  marriage 
laws,  reform  of  the  calendar,  improvement  of  peas- 
ants ;  founding  of  St.  Petersburg. 

In  religion  he  abolished  the  patriarchate  of  Moscow 
after  1700  and  in  1721  organized  the  "Most  Holy 
Governing  Synod''  at  St.  Petersburg,  consisting  of 
bishops  and  priests  presided  over  by  a  Procurator 
(layman,  member  of  "Council  of  ministers")  all  ap- 
pointed by  the  Czar;  this  makes  the  church  a  depart- 
ment of  state,  useless,  inimical  to  progress,  serving 
the  function  of  police;  the  church  paralyzed,  has  had 
no  intellectual,  moral  or  spiritual  power  since.  Wor- 
ship in  old  Slavonic  is  not  understood;  weekly  at- 
tendance on  worship  required ;  priests  must  be  married, 
are  poor,  ignorant,  rarely  preach  and  then  only  when 
sermon  has  first  been  approved  by  higher  authority; 
disliked ;  bishops  must  not  be  married ;  priestly  families 
intermarry  and  form  a  sort  of  caste.  Ecclesiastical 
courts  still  exist  with  jurisdiction  over  clergy  and  all 
cases  of  marriage,  divorce.  There  are  three  Metro- 
politans (Kiev,  Moscow,  St.  Petersburg),  fourteen 
archbishops  and  fifty  bishops. 


OF  CHURCH   HISTORY  257 


B.    Western  Christianity 

N.  ii.  415-24;  H.  ii.  740-3;  K.  164. 

1.  Rationalism.  This  was  an  age  of  dead  hyper- 
orthodoxy  on  one  side  and  skepticism,  liberalism  and 
rationalism  on  the  other.  Wearied  with  strife  and  the- 
ological controversy,  men  turned  to  natural  religion  or 
away  from  religion  altogether,  regarding  the  distinc- 
tive Christian  teachings  as  the  cause  of  all  their  divi- 
sions and  woes.  For  the  future  they  would  give  up 
their  superstitions  and  live  by  reason.  Reason  must 
rule  in  religion,  law,  architecture,  art,  poetry.  It  was 
the  age  of  Aufkldrung,  "illumination,"  when  the  ac- 
cumulated errors  and  wrongs  of  centuries  were  to  be 
swept  away.  All  that  could  not  justify  itself  to  reason 
must  be  rejected.  This  tendency  is  manifested  first  in 
England  in  17th  century,  it  spread  thence  to  France, 
and  finally  to  Germany  toward  end  of  period.  A  new 
hopefulness,  a  joy  and  self-confidence  filled  the  hearts 
of  men  for  a  time,  as  they  looked  toward  days  of 
reasonableness  and  peace. 

2.  Politically,,  it  was  an  age  of  great  progress. 
Two  new  Protestant  states  arose — Prussia  became  a 
kingdom  in  1701,  and  the  United  States,  a  republic 
1776;  North  America  east  of  the  Mississippi  was 
(1764)  wrested  from  Catholic  France  by  Protestant 
England,  and  then  lost  1776  by  the  Revolution. 
Throughout  Europe  progress  was  made  towards 
equahty  before  the  law,  and  sentiment  against  serf- 


258  A   GUIDE   TO  THE   STUDY 

dom  and  slavery  was  growing  in  Europe  and  America. 

3.  Philosophy  breaks  from  the  leading  strings  of 
religion  and  starts  on  its  career  of  independence. 
Most  of  the  great  systems  of  modern  philosophy 
were  founded  in  this  period.  Francis  Bacon  (1561- 
1626),  Thos.  Hobbs  (1588- 1679),  Descartes  (1596- 
1650),  Spinoza  (1632-77),  John  Locke  (1632- 1704), 
Leibnitz  (i 646-1 716),  Berkeley  (1684- 1753),  Chris- 
tian Wolff  (1679-1754),  David  Hume  (171 1-76), 
Emanuel  Kant  (i  724-1804).  This  was  pre-eminently 
a  philosophical  age;  Deism,  Pantheism,  Materialism 
and  other  systems.  The  natural  sciences  were  just 
beginning  their  career  in  this  period. 

4.  Literature  also  breaks  away  from  the  church 
and  manifests  the  general  tendencies  of  the  time. 
There  is  an  enormous  output  of  theological  literature, 
mostly  polemical  and  apologetical ;  the  scientific  treat- 
ment of  church  history  and  exegesis  begins  toward  end 
of  period. 

Much  polite  literature  indifferent  or  hostile  to  Chris- 
tianity, especially  in  England,  France  and  Germany. 
It  did  good  service  in  lashing  the  inequalities,  igno- 
rance, superstition,  absurdities  and  iniquities  of  the 
time.  In  France  there  were,  beside  many  others, 
Rousseau  (1712-78),  Voltaire  (1694- 1778),  Montes- 
quieu (1689-1755);  Diderot  (1713-84),  and  d'Aleni- 
bert  (1717-83)  founded  and  published  the  Encyclo- 
pedia (1751-77).  In  England  Dryden  (1631-1700) 
and  Pope  (1688- 1 744),  Addison  (1672-1719),  Swift 
(1667- 1 745)  and  others,  were  artificial  but  not  so 
hostile  to  the  church.  In  Germany  Klopstock  ( 1 724- 
1803),    Lessing    (1729-81),    Wieland    (i 733-1813), 


OF   CHURCH   HISTORY 


259 


Herder   (1744- 1803),  the  earlier  periods  of  Goethe 
(1749-1832)  and  Schiller  (1759-1805). 

Publication  of  newspapers  began  in  first  half  of  17th 
century  (first  weekly)  ;  in  second  half  other  periodicals 
devoted  to  criticism,  philosophy  and  other  learned  sub- 
jects. Before  end  of  period  they  were  largely  de- 
veloped and  a  powerful  factor  in  the  intellectual  life 
of  the  time.  No  distinctively  religious  weeklies  and 
periodicals  in  this  period. 

5.  Music,  which  had  been  developing  rapidly  since 
the  Reformation,  reached  a  high  plane  in  this  period. 
Handel  (1685-1759),  Bach  (1685-1750),  Haydn 
(1732-1809),  Mozart  (1756-91).  Much  of  the  best 
music  was  distinctly  religious. 

6.  Religiously,  there  was  general  decline  in  earlier 
part  of  period.  Atheism,  skepticism,  indifferentism 
with  low  morals  in  Europe  and  America.  Toward 
close  of  period  great  revival  and  improvement  specially 
in  England  and  America. 

Marked  progress  toward  religious  freedom  in  this 
period.  All  Protestant  parties  receive  toleration  in 
England  1689  ^^^  sentiment  grows  in  other  European 
countries ;  while  Constitution  of  U.  S.  prohibits  estab- 
lishment of  religion,  it  is  the  rise  of  religious  indi- 
vidualism against  confessionalism. 

Protestant  foreign  missions  expand  in  this  period. 
Rationalism  and  political  changes  caused  decay  of 
Dutch  missions  in  E.  Indies,  and  English  missions  in 
America;  Danish-Halle  mission,  founded  1705,  and 
Moravians  begin  work  1732;  serious  retrogression  be- 
fore end  of  period  owing  to  rationalism  on  the  home 
base. 


26o  A  GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 

Rise  of  a  new  denomination,  Methodism,  in  Eng- 
land, 1739,  is  of  world-wide  significance. 

The  United  States  begin  a  new  religious  force  in 
the  world,  on  the  basis  of  voluntary  union  with  the 
church;  this  leaves  a  large  element  of  population  out- 
side the  church. 


OF  CHURCH   HISTORY  261 


A.     CATHOLIC  CHURCH 

I.     External  History 

N.  ii.  425-42,  488-92;  K,  Sec.  156:1-4;  A.  iii.  362-4. 

I.  Relations  to  Civil  Government  and  Na- 
tional Churches.  In  Treaty  of  Westphalia  the  pope 
and  his  protest  were  wholly  ignored  by  both  Catholics 
and  Protestants.  Henceforth  his  influence  on  civil 
government  and  secular  affairs  almost  ceased,  and  his 
moral  influence  was  greatly  weakened.  Catholic 
princes  showed  marked  independence,  and  even  hos- 
tility to  papal  pretensions,  and  were  widely  supported 
by  their  bishops  and  churches.  The  period  was  one  of 
almost  constant  and  steady  decline  in  the  influence  and 
standing  of  the  pope.  Only  in  France  was  there  some 
vigor  and  power  shown. 

( I )  In  this  opposition  France,  now  at  the  pinnacle 
of  its  glory,  the  leading  country  of  Europe,  took  the 
lead.  The  Church  of  France  was  prosperous  and 
Louis  XIV  determined  to  control  it.  Constant  friction 
between  France  and  papacy;  in  1662  papal  envoys 
were  ordered  to  quit  France,  Avignon  and  Venaissin 
were  occupied  by  French  troops.  Italy  was  invaded 
and  a  humiliating  treaty  forced  from  the  pope  1664; 
controversy  over  "Right  of  Regalia,"  i.  e.,  the  right  of 
the  king  to  the  revenues  of  vacant  bishoprics  and  to 
fill  the  vacancies  led  Louis  XIV  to  appeal  from  the 
pope  to  a  General  Council;  1682  the  assembly  of 
French  clergy  drew  up   (Bossuet)    famous  Gallican 


262  A   GUIDE   TO   THE   STUDY 

Liberties  in  "Four  Articles"  :  (a)  The  pope  has  power 
only  in  spiritual,  not  in  civil  or  temporal  things;  rulers 
are  not  subject  to  him  in  temporal  affairs,  nor  can  they 
be  deposed  or  their  subjects  be  released  from  obedi- 
ence, (b)  The  final  seat  of  authority  is  in  the  Ecu- 
menical Council  rather  than  in  the  pope,  (c)  Papal 
authority  in  spiritual  matters  is  limited  by  the  canons 
and  by  the  ecclesiastical  customs  and  institutions  of  the 
Gallican  kingdom  and  church,  (d)  The  pope's  judg- 
ment is  not  irreversible  until  confirmed  by  a  council. 

The  pope  now  refused  to  confirm  the  French 
bishops,  while  Louis  XIV  threatened  to  cut  the  French 
church  loose  from  the  papacy.  However  a  reaction 
of  sentiment  set  in  and  in  1693  the  bishops  expressed 
regret  for  the  articles  of  1682;  but  friction  continued 
throughout  the  period. 

(2)  In  Austria  there  was  frequent  friction  and 
Joseph  II,  co-regent  with  Maria  Theresa  (1766-80), 
Emperor  (1780-90)  introduced  sweeping  reforms — 
granted  toleration  to  Protestants,  prohibited  appeals, 
pilgrimages  and  processions,  suppressed  many  monas- 
teries and  placed  others  under  strict  regidation,  per- 
mitted publication  of  papal  bulls  and  episcopal  ordi- 
nances only  after  governmental  approval,  placed 
monastic  houses  under  bishops,  encouraged  preaching 
and  use  of  German  language  in  worship,  established 
state  schools  for  education  of  priests,  etc.  The  "Con- 
gress of  Ems,"  a  gathering  of  German  clergy,  took 
steps  looking  toward  severing  the  German  church  from 
Rome.  So  serious  was  the  outlook  that  Pius  VI 
journeyed  to  Vienna  in  the  hope  of  averting  the  disas- 
ter.    He  was  received  respectfully  but  could  not  stop 


OF   CHURCH  HISTORY  263 

the  reform.  Joseph's  successor  was  more  favorable 
to  the  church. 

(3)  Other  Catholic  States — Venice,  Naples,  Spain, 
Portugal — showed  marked  spirit  of  independence,  and 
frequent  frictions  throughout  the  period.  In  the  Span- 
ish Netherlands  an  independent  church,  "Old  Roman 
Catholic  Church  of  the  Netherlands,"  was  formed 
(1723),  which  now  has  6,000  members. 

2.  Missions,  (i)  In  Europe.  Conversion  of 
Count-Palatine  Wolfgang  William  of  Neuberg  in  1614 
prepared  way  for  Catholicising  of  the  Palatinate  1685  ; 
Christiana,  daughter  of  Gustavus  Adolphus,  became 
Catholic,  but  resigned  her  crown  1654;  Frederick 
Augustus  II,  Elector  of  Saxony,  became  Catholic 
(1697)  to  qualify  himself  for  the  Polish  crown,  but 
safeguarded  the  rights  of  his  Protestant  subjects  in 
Saxony.  In  France  persecution  throughout  17th  and 
1 8th  centuries  drove  many  Protestants  back  into  Cath- 
olic church;  all  Lutherans  (c.  20,000)  banished  from 
archbishopric  of  Salshurg  173 1-2. 

(2)  Foreign  Missions  (A.  iii.  374;  K.  156:10-14; 
165:3).  Catholic  foreign  missions  were  almost  de- 
stroyed before  end  of  period. 

In  India  at  beginning  of  period  were  some  300,000 
Christians,  Pariahs  and  Brahmins  (Nobili),  chiefly 
the  result  of  Jesuit  work.  By  end  of  period  they  have 
almost  disappeared. 

In  China  Ricci  (d.  1610)  was  followed  by  Verbiest 
(d.  1688),  Schall  (1728-63),  and  many  other  Jesuits; 
they  accommodated  Christianity  to  Chinese  customs 
and  made  themselves  useful  to  the  government.  The 
emperor  officially  permitted  conversion  to  Christianity, 


264  A  GUIDE  TO  THE  STUDY 

and  by  1700  there  were  300,000  Christians;  from  1630 
on,  Jesuits  were  opposed  by  Dominicans  and  Francis- 
cans; forbidden  by  pope  to  continue  accommodation 
methods;  after  1723  Christianity  was  forbidden  by 
Chinese  government;  much  persecution. 

In  Japan  there  had  been  almost  a  milHon  nominal 
Christians;  change  of  political  situation  brought  perse- 
cution, and  1 64 1  all  foreign  missionaries  were  ban- 
ished and  the  work  almost  perished. 

In  most  oi  N.  America  Catholic  missions  were 
brought  to  an  end  by  the  English.  In  Mexico,  Central 
and  S.  America,  the  Antilles,  Dominicans,  Franciscans 
and  other  orders  carried  on  a  successful  mission.  In 
Paraguay  the  Jesuits  had  great  success,  founding  a 
semi-independent  Indian  state,  suppressed  by  Spain 
and  Portugal  1750,  and  completely  ruined;  success  in 
the  Philippines. 

11.     Internal  History 

N.  ii.  467-79;  K.  Sees.  157,  1657^;  A.  iii.  365-6. 
I.  Jansenism  in  France.  Jansen's  Augustinian- 
ism  was  supported  by  Duvergier,  abbot  of  St.  Cyran 
(d.  1643),  Antoine  Arnauld,  professor  in  the  Sor- 
bonne,  by  Port  Royal  Convent  under  Angelique  Ar- 
nauld, and  many  able  and  famous  men  connected  with 
the  convent — Le  Maitre,  DeSaci,  Pascal,  Nicole,  Tille- 
mont,  Quesnel,  Racine.  Jesuits  secured  condemnation 
of  "Five  Propositions,"  alleged  to  be  taken  from 
"Augustinus,"  by  the  pope  1653  :  expulsion  of  Arnauld 
and  eighty  other  doctors  from  Sorbonne  (1656) ;  Pas- 
cal's "Provincial  Letters"  exposing  the  moral  teachings 
of  the  Jesuits  1656;  French  clergy  now  required  by 


OF   CHURCH   HISTORY  265 

pope  and  king  to  sign  "Declaration"  condemning  the 
propositions,  1661 ;  Port  Royal  broken  up  1709  and 
building  destroyed  1710.  Quesnel  had  published 
''Moral  Reflections"  on  N.  T.  1671-87,  and  new  edition 
1693 ;  widely  read;  loi  propositions  condemned  in  bull 
Unigenitus  1713;  archbishop  of  Paris,  other  bishops 
and  doctors  refused  to  accept  the  bull  and  appealed 
to  General  Council  171 7;  they  were  called  "Appel- 
lants," their  opponents  "Acceptants."  In  1727  a 
deacon,  Francis  of  Paris,  died  with  the  appeal  in  his 
hand ;  his  grave  in  St.  Medard  worked  miracles ;  perse- 
cution now  generated  wild  fanaticism  and  Jansenism 
gradually  died  in  France;  bishops  returned  to  obedi- 
ence or  were  banished,  1728  on. 

In  1723  archdiocese  of  Utrecht  in  the  Netherlands 
seceded  from  the  papacy  and  set  up  an  independent 
Jansenist  church,  "Old  Catholic  Church  of  the  Nether- 
lands." 

2.  Quietism.  Parallel  with  the  above  was  the  con- 
troversy over  "Quietism,"  Spanish  mysticism.  Michael 
Molinos  (1627-96),  a  Spaniard,  went  to  Rome  1669 
and  soon  afterward  wrote  the  "Spiritual  Guide" ; 
author  forced  to  retract  1687,  died  in  prison  1696; 
many  followers.  Madame  Guyon  (1648-1717),  gifted 
French  lady,  adopted  these  views;  condemned  1695, 
she  submitted,  but  continued  to  propagate  her  views; 
roused  controversy  between  Bossuet  and  Fenelon ;  sub- 
mission of  the  latter  1697  on. 

3.  Suppression  of  Jesuits  (A.  iii.  373a;  K.  Sec. 
165*9)-  Jesuits  had  rendered  themselves  extremely 
unpopular  by  (i)  lax  moral  principles,  (2)  meddling 
jn  politics,  (3)  vast  power  in  church  and  state,  (4) 


266  A   GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 

semi-Pelagian  theology,  (5)  extensive  commercial 
enterprises,  (6)  lax  missionary  methods,  (7)  disobe- 
dience to  pope.  They  were  banished  from  Portugal 
and  its  dominions  (E.  and  W.),  and  their  property 
confiscated  1759  because  of  a  Jesuit  rebellion  against 
Portuguese  authority  in  Paraguay;  suppressed  in 
France  1762  because  of  failure  in  a  commercial  enter- 
prise involving  French  people;  banished  from  Spain 
and  her  possessions,  from  Naples,  Parma  and  Pia- 
cenza  1767;  on  urgent  demand  of  the  Bourbon 
princes,  suppressed  by  pope  July  21,  1773.  They 
lingered  for  a  time  in  Silesia,  used  by  Frederick  the 
Great  to  improve  the  schools;  in  Russia  till  their 
revival  in  181 4  so  as  to  exercise  influence  on  the 
Catholics  of  Poland. 

4.  Religious  Thought  and  Literature  (A.  iii. 
517-62).  Catholics  produced  little  non-ecclesiastical 
literature,  were  little  affected  by  the  prevailing  ration- 
alism. Several  scholars  of  note  are  found  in  Catholic 
countries,  notably  in  France.  In  France,  Bossuet 
(fi704)  and  Fenelon  (fi7i5)  were  scholars  and 
preachers;  Flechier  (fi7io),  Bourdalou  (fi704), 
Massillon  (fi742)  great  preachers;  members  of 
various  orders  did  admirable  work  in  Church  History ; 
e.  g.,  Tillemont,  Harduin,  Labbe,  Cossart  and  others. 
Toward  end  of  period  religious  literature  declined 
under  influence  of  skepticism.  In  Italy  were  Muratori 
and  Mansi ;  men  of  less  note  in  other  lands. 


OF   CHURCH   HISTORY  267 


B.     LUTHERAN  CHURCHES 

N.  ii.  519-44;  K.  Sees.  154,  159-60,  167-68;  H.  ii.  573-87;  A. 
iii.  375-384 

1.  Orthodox  Lutheranism.  The  Reformation 
left  the  churches  completely  subject  to  princes  whose 
influence  was  often  evil.  The  strife  and  ruin,  eco- 
nomic depression  and  moral  degeneration  of  the  Thirty 
Years  War  were  accompanied  and  followed  by  bitter 
theological  battles.  A  new  scholasticism  and  a  rigid, 
intolerant,  polemical  Lutheran  orthodoxy  characterized 
last  half  of  17th  century  in  Germany  and  Scandi- 
navia. Formula  of  Concord  the  standard.  Emphasis 
on  the  objective,  external  features  of  Christianity — 
baptism,  the  word,  confession,  eucharist,  church,  min- 
istry; neglect  of  the  spiritual,  and  of  personal  faith; 
immorality;  formal  theological  preaching.  Efforts  of 
Geo.  Calixtus  (1586- 1656),  highly  educated  and 
widely  traveled,  professor  in  University  of  Helmsted 
(1613-56),  on  basis  of  Bible  and  consensus  of  teach- 
ing in  first  five  Christian  centuries,  to  bring  about 
more  harmony  and  better  feeling  (conference  at  Thorn 
1645)  precipitated  violent  Syncretistic  controversy. 
University  of  Wittenberg  and  Leipzig  orthodox.  Paul 
Gerhardt  d.  1676  most  important  Lutheran  hymn 
writer. 

2.  Reaction  against  dead  orthodoxy  produced  Piet- 
ism, i.  e.,  personal  piety  directed  toward  practical  ends, 


268  A  GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 

the  German  revival.  It  emphasized  the  necessity 
for  regeneration  and  conversion,  private  Bible 
study,  activity  of  laymen,  personal  piety,  strict 
morals,  relative  indifference  to  ecclesiastical  institu- 
tions, sharp  polemic  against  dead  orthodoxy,  church 
discipline;  bitter  opposition  of  orthodox  Lutherans. 
Beginnings  of  other  men  (Arndt,  Miiller,  etc.) 
gathered  up,  crystallized  and  made  effective  by 
P.  J.  Spener  (163 5- 1705),  b.  in  Alsace,  highly  edu- 
cated, v^idely  traveled,  able,  spiritual ;  pastor  and  pro- 
fessor in  Strasburg  (1663-6);  pastor  at  Frankfort 
(1666-86) ;  began  reform  w^ork  c.  1666,  with  earnest, 
practical,  spiritual  preaching;  collegia  pietatis  for 
devotional  and  Bible  reading  1670  onward;  Pia  Dese- 
deria  published  1675,  in  which  he  sets  forth  the  sad 
religious  conditions  and  urges  as  remedy  the  circula- 
tion and  study  of  Scripture,  emphasis  on  spiritual 
priesthood  of  believers  and  practical  Christianity,  a 
better  spirit  in  religious  discussion,  better  education 
of  preachers  and  practical  rather  than  artistic  or  theo- 
logical preaching.  Spener  became  chief  court  preacher 
at  Dresden  (1686-91)  where  he  exerted  important  in- 
fluence in  universities  of  Liepzig  and  Halle;  provost 
of  St.  Nicolai  church  BerHn  1691-1705. 

In  1686  A.  H.  Francke  (d.  1727),  Paul  Anton  and 
six  other  young  professors  in  University  of  Leipzig 
under  Spener's  influence  formed  a  club  (Collegium 
Philobiblicum)  for  exegetical  and  devotional  Bible 
study;  1690  they  began  collegia  biblica  (exegetical 
lectures  on  Bible  for  students) ;  opposition  (Carp- 
zovius)  drove  Francke  and  others  out  of  the  Univer- 
sity; University  of  Halle  founded   1694  with  Tho- 


OF  CHURCH  HISTORY  269 

masius  in  jurisprudence,  Francke,  Anton  and  Breit- 
haup  in  theology;  thoroughly  pietistic,  immensely 
popular. 

Francke  founded  an  orphan  house  (1695),  printing 
house,  free  school  and  pddagogicum  through  which 
pietism  was  propagated;  hundreds  of  pastors  and  mis- 
sionaries educated  here.  Pietism  later  becomes  cen- 
sorious, divided,  polemical.  Strife  with  Christian 
Wolf  (1697-1754),  professor  of  philosophy,  who  in 
popularizing  teachings  of  Leibnitz,  adopted  a  rational- 
istic position,  began  1721  and  ended  in  his  deposition 
and  banishment  1723.  Pietism  never  formed  an  inde- 
pendent denomination,  and  gradually  decayed  before 
the  rising  rationalism,  led  in  first  instance  by  Wolf. 
It  decayed  partly  because  it  never  appealed  to  any  but 
the  cultured,  became  narrow,  self-righteous  and 
censorious,  thus  bringing  itself  into  disrepute. 

3.  Missions  now  begin  among  Protestants,  chiefly 
to  heathen  in  colonies  in  Christian  nations.  Various 
voices  raised  in  favor  of  missions  in  17th  century  were 
bitterly  opposed  by  orthodox  Lutherans.  Baron  Jus- 
tinian Von  Weltz  (1621-c.  1670)  wrote  in  favor  of 
missions  1664  onward;  went  to  Dutch  Guiana  and 
soon  died,  martyr.  Spener,  Leibnitz,  Francke  and 
others  advocated  missions.  Denmark  had  colonial 
possessions  in  E.  Indies  1619  onward,  and  in  West 
Indies  1672  onward.  King  Frederick  IV  deeply  in- 
terested in  missions,  commissioned  court  preacher 
Liitkens  (1705)  to  find  and  send  out  missionaries. 
No  Danes  being  found,  two  Germans  (Pliitschau  and 
Ziegenbalg)  from  Halle  were  sent  out  (1705)  to 
Tranquebar,  beginning  the  Danish-Halle  Mission  in 


270  A   GUIDE   TO  THE   STUDY 

East  Indies;  supported  by  State  of  Denmark,  but 
manned  and  directed  from  Halle,  whence  sixty  mis- 
sionaries were  sent  out  during  the  century.  First 
missionary  magazine  began  1710  (Missionsnachrich- 
ten  dcr  ostindischen  Missionsanstalt  zu  Halle)  by 
Francke.  Mission  flourished  till  Rationalism  de- 
stroyed its  support  at  home.  A  missionary  college  at 
Copenhagen  sent  missionaries  to  Lapland  (1716  on- 
ward) and  Greenland  (1721  onward). 

''United  Brethren"  most  notable  missionaries  of  the 
period.  Count  Zinzendorf  (1700-60),  b.  in  Dresden, 
brought  up  by  his  grandmother  in  pietistic  atmosphere ; 
studied  at  Halle,  Wittenberg  and  elsewhere;  deeply 
and  earnestly  pious;  under  pressure  of  his  family 
he  entered  civil  service,  but  his  heart  was  in  religious 
work;  purchased  the  estate  of  Berthelsdorf  where  he 
spent  his  leisure  in  caring  for  the  souls  of  his  tenants; 
he  permitted  fugitive  Moravians  to  settle  on  his  estates 
(1722  onward);  Germans  and  other  pious  people 
joined  them  and  they  organized  Unitas  Fratrum  in 
1727,  hence  are  called  ''United  Brethren";  had  old  Bo- 
hemian organization,  but  accepted  Augsburg  Confes- 
sion ;  not  intended  as  new  denomination,  but  an  evan- 
gelizing agency;  1728  it  was  decided  to  undertake 
foreign  mission  work;  on  a  visit  to  Copenhagen,  1731, 
Zinzendorf  learned  of  condition  of  Negroes  in  W. 
Indies  and  condition  of  natives  in  Greenland;  mission- 
aries to  W.  Indies  1732,  Greenland  1733,  Pennsylvania 
1735,  Georgia  1737,  Labrador  1771.  At  first  recog- 
nized as  members  of  church  of  Saxony,  but  Zinzen- 
dorf was  banished  1736  and  organized  a  new  church 
with  himself  as  bishop.     Missionaries  not  university 


OF  CHURCH   HISTORY  271 

bred,  but  brave  and  faithful,  doing  work  in  hardest 
fields;  organizations  in  England  and  U.  S. 

4.  The  Aufklaerung  (Illumination),  German  ra- 
tionalism. Germany's  revival  began  to  wane  fifteen 
years  before  England's  began  to  rise.  Wolf's  philoso- 
phy, eliminating  the  supernatural,  and  recommending 
natural  religion,  mastered  Germany  by  1740,  was  im- 
mensely popular.  Assisted  by  French  skepticism 
(Voltaire)  and  extensive  use  of  French  language  and 
literature.  ^'Popular  Philosophy,"  Semler  (d.  1768), 
Reimarus  (d.  1768)  ( Wolff enbiittd  Fragments  pub- 
lished by  Lessing,  1774  onward)  ;  Mosheim  (d.  1755)  ; 
Edelmann  (d.  1767).  Rationalism  put  an  end  to  both 
orthodoxy  and  pietism. 

5.  The  New  Jerusalem  Church  founded  (1783)  by 
disciples  of  Emanuel  Swedenborg  (1688- 1772),  pan- 
theistic mysticism. 


2^2  A  GUIDE   TO  THE   STUDY 


C.     CALVINISTIC  OR  "REFORMED'* 
CHURCHES. 

N.  ii.  568-70,  573-8,  585-7,  589-99;  K.  Sees.  161:3,  162,  169:1-3; 
H.  ii.  772  f,  776-81 ;  864-8. 

Calvinism  showed  same  two  tendencies  as  Lutheran- 
ism:  (i)  hyperorthodoxy,  (2)  growing  liberalism; 
both  fostered  strife,  deadness  and  coldness.  There  is 
little  pleasing  history,  only  theological  strife  in  the 
earlier  years,  shading  off  into  liberalism  and  rational- 
ism in  the  later. 

I.  Swiss  "Reformed"  (N.  ii.  568-70;  K.  Sec. 
169 :2 ;  H.  ii.  773).  At  beginning  of  period  the  Swiss 
churches  were  staunchly  Calvinistic.  Cf.  Johann 
Buxtorf,  the  Younger  (i  599-1664).  In  opposition  to 
school  of  Saumur  (La  Place  1596-1655;  Cappel  1585- 
1658,  who  discovered  true  history  of  Hebrew  vowel 
points,  Amyraut  1596-1644),  which  denied  verbal  in- 
spiration, particular  predestination  and  imputation  of 
Adam's  sin,  a  new  creed,  Helvetic  Consensus  Formula 
(CC.  I.  477-89)  was  drawn  up  by  Heidegger  and  was 
adopted  (1675)  by  the  "Reformed"  cantons  and  made 
binding  on  ministers  and  theological  professors.  Rigid 
Calvinism;  it  was  gradually  abolished  by  one  canton 
after  another  in  first  half  of  eighteenth  century. 
Gradually  a  more  liberal  spirit  appeared  (J.  A.  Tur- 
retin,  1674-1737),  and  before  end  of  period  Switzer- 
land was  deeply  affected  by  the  rationalism  of  France 
and  Germany. 


OF  CHURCH  HISTORY  273 

2.  German  "Reformed"  (N.  ii.  585-7;  K.  Sec. 
169:1)  were  deeply  depressed  by  Thirty  Years'  War. 
Prussia,  an  asylum  for  persecuted  Calvinists  of  other 
parts  of  Germany,  and  from  France.  Contrary  to  pro- 
visions of  Treaty  of  Westphalia,  Calvinists  were  per- 
secuted almost  throughout  the  entire  period.  German 
Calvinists  were  deeply  affected  by  the  "Illumination." 

3.  French  Protestants  (N.  ii.  589-99;  H.  ii. 
776-81 ;  Baird,  Huguenots  and  Rev.  Edict  of  Nantes) . 
Protestants  had  flourished  during  first  half  of  seven- 
teenth century,  counting  possibly  2,000,000,  many 
preachers  of  ability  (DuMouHn,  Saurin)  ;  four  theo- 
logical schools — Nimes,  noted  for  its  attempts  to  unite 
Catholics  and  Protestants;  Saumur,  noted  for  its 
modifications  of  current  orthodox  Calvinism;  Sedan 
and  Montauban,  orthodox;  many  colleges  and  other 
schools.  Violent  repression  began  with  destruction  of 
all  Protestant  churches  whose  existence  in  1629  could 
not  be  proven.  Gradually  all  church  buildings  were 
destroyed,  their  schools  broken  up;  numberless  other 
oppressions  suffered;  emigration  began  c.  1660;  possi- 
bly 500,000  or  more  Protestants  emigrated  in  next 
30  years;  dragonades  and  inducements  of  money  and 
position  led  thousands  to  become  Catholics.  Revoca- 
tion of  Edicts  of  Nantes  and  Nimes  1685 ;  nominally 
freedom  of  faith  was  retained,  but  government  now 
destroyed  all  organization  and  property,  forbade  all 
worship,  banished  all  preachers,  made  Protestant  mar- 
riage invalid.  Many  remained  faithful,  especially  in 
S.  and  S.  E.  France,  and,  with  or  without  ministers, 
held  secret  worship.  Camisard  War  for  extirpation  of 
Protestants   in  the   Cevennes    (1702-5);    fanaticism, 


274  A  GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 

prophecy,  etc.  Antoine  Court  (1695-1760),  "restorer 
of  the  Reformed  Church  of  France,"  organized  Synod 
of  the  Desert  (1715),  and  began  to  reorganize  whole 
church  of  France,  sending  Corteiz  to  Switzerland  to 
secure  ordination.  Progress  now  steady.  Theological 
school  for  French  preachers  established  at  Lausanne 
1730.  Paul  Rabaut  (1718-94),  wonderful  evangelist. 
Last  execution  1762.  Influence  of  Voltaire,  Lafayette 
and  the  liberals  against  persecution  or  proscription. 
Edict  of  Toleration  (1787)  was  practically  a  re- 
instatement of  Edict  of  Nantes. 

4.  Dutch  "Reformed"  (N.  ii.  573-8;  H.  ii.  772; 
K.  Sec.  169:3).  The  Netherlands  not  much  affected 
by  Thirty  Years'  War;  far  more  tolerant  than  other 
governments ;  division  between  Calvinists  and  Remon- 
strants (Arminians)  continued,  rigid  Calvinism  gradu- 
ally decayed.  Remonstrants  established  a  seminary  at 
Amsterdam  and  produced  some  men  of  note :  P.  Lim- 
borch  (i 633-1712)  wrote  "History  of  the  Inquisi- 
tion"; J.  Clericus.  (1657-1736);  other  writers  and 
literature.  The  Orthodox,  torn  by  theological  strife, 
produced  an  immense  theological  literature.  Cocceius 
(1603-69)  became  founder  of  biblical  theology  and 
father  of  "federal  theology,"  according  to  which  the 
relation  between  God  and  man  is  one  of  covenants; 
(i)  covenant  of  works  before  the  fall,  (2)  covenant 
of  grace  after  fall,  divided  into  three  dispensations, 
ante-legal,  legal,  post-legal.  He  and  his  followers 
were  liberal  in  keeping  Sabbath,  in  dress,  life  and 
amusements.  He  was  opposed  by  Voetius  (1588- 
1676),  a  rigid  Calvinist,  strict  Sabbatarian;  practiced 
peculiarities  in  dress,  abstaining  from  amusements,  etc. 


OF   CHURCH   HISTORY  275 

The  struggle  became  political  and  the  people,  churches, 
schools,  government  divided  into  warring  factions. 
Compromise  finally  adopted  by  which  churches  should 
have  pastors  alternately  from  the  two  parties,  univer- 
sities should  divide  their  professors  among  the  parties, 
etc. 

5.  Scotland  (N.  ii.  603-9;  H.  ii.  864-8).  The 
establishment  of  the  Episcopal  church  in  Scotland  on 
restoration  of  Charles  II  (1661)  ousted  four  hundred 
ministers,  led  to  renewal  of  the  covenant  and  the  for- 
mation of  a  party  of  Covenanters  ( Cameronians,  or 
Reformed  Presbyterians),  which  continued  as  an  inde- 
pendent party  after  the  Revolution  and  re-establish- 
ment of  Presbyterianism  as  the  state  church  of  Scot- 
land ( 1689)  on  basis  of  the  regulations  of  1592 ;  Epis- 
copalians a  minority,  discredited  party;  Scottish  par- 
liament united  with  the  English  1707  under  guarantee 
that  the  church  would  not  be  disturbed;  in  violation 
of  this  agreement  lay  patronage  was  restored  by  the 
united  Parliament  in  171 1 ;  Scottish  General  Assembly, 
having  protested  several  years  finally  pronounced  in 
favor  of  lay  patronage  1732. 

Protest  against  this  act  and  the  growing  laxness 
in  life  and  theology  due  to  Deism  and  Socinianism 
known  as  Moderatism  by  Ebenezer  Erskine  (1680- 
1754),  led  the  assembly  to  depose  him  and  others 
(1733)  J  who  formed  the  ''Secession  Church/'  highly 
Calvinistic  in  theology  and  rigid  in  morals ;  this  church 
split  1749,  but  the  parties  reunited  1820  into  the 
"United  Secession  Church.'' 

In  1752  Thos.  Gillespie,  refusing  to  assist  in  ordain- 
ing a  man  forced  on  an  unwilling  church  by  the  patron, 


276  A  GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 

was  deposed  by  the  Assembly;  he  then  formed  the 
"Relief  Church/'  moderately  Calvinistic. 

The  state  church  suffered  decline  in  morals,  evan- 
gelical doctrines  and  zeal;  many  men  of  culture  in  it: 
Robertson,  the  historian ;  Hugh  Blair,  the  rhetorician ; 
Thos.  Reid,  the  philosopher;  John  Home,  the  dram- 
atist; many  other  preachers  were  famous  as  literary 
men;  David  Hume  (d.  1776)  was  friendly  with  preach- 
ers. Criticism  of  current  Christianity  by  Robt.  Burns 
(1759-96);  Moderatism  dominant  in  state  church, 
but  condition  not  so  bad  as  in  England  in  this  period. 


OF  CHURCH   HISTORY  277 


D.    ENGLAND. 

N.  ii.  625-50,  681-9,  704;  H.  ii.  809-27;  844-6,  85if ;  K.  Sec.  169:4! 

During  last  half  of  the  seventeenth  century  and  first 
half  of  eighteenth  century,  England  was  at  low  ebb 
religiously  and  morally,  due  to  reaction  against  (a) 
preceding  political  and  religious  strife,  and  to  (b) 
Puritan  sternness  and  severity,  and  (c)  to  rise  of 
Deism  and  Socinianism  (or  Arianism).  Drunkenness, 
profanity,  theft,  robbing,  gambling  and  the  social  evil 
prevailed  among  all  classes  to  frightful  extent;  severe 
laws  unavailing;  ignorance  and  poverty  among  lower 
classes ;  in  state  church  plurality,  non-residence,  luxury 
and  indifference  among  upper  clergy;  poverty,  immo- 
rality and  ignorance  among  lower.  The  clergy  were 
scorned,  religion  was  laughed  at  and  appeared  ready 
to  perish.  Preaching  lost  all  distinctive  Christian 
evangelical  elements,  and  only  insisted  on  ethics. 

Deism  rose  in  England  in  this  period,  was  trans- 
planted to  France,  thence  to  Germany  and  the  Nether- 
lands, everywhere  exercising  disastrous  influence  on 
evangelical  religion.  It  was  a  system  of  natural  reli- 
gion, insisting  upon  (a)  existence  of  God,  (b)  obli- 
gation to  worship  Him,  (c)  obligation  to  virtuous 
living,  (d)  obligation  of  repentance,  (e)  immortality 
with  rewards  and  punishments  here  and  hereafter ;  but 
denying  revelation  (except  in  nature),  miracles, 
divinity  and  atoning  work  of  Christ;  sought  unification 


2y%  A  GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 

of  Christians  by  stressing  the  elements  of  universal 
religion,  acceptable  to  all  parties  and  classes.  It  was 
opposed  to  atheism,  pantheism  and  theism  in  that  it 
asserted  the  existence  of  a  personal  God,  but  thought 
of  him  as  wholly  transcendent  and  separate  from  the 
world.  Its  founder  w^as  Lord  Herbert  of  Cherbury 
(d.  1648) ;  others  were  Thos.  Hobbes  (d.  1679),  John 
Locke  (d.  1704),  John  Toland  (d.  1722),  Anthony 
Collins  (d.  1729),  Mathew  Tindal  (d.  1733),  Boling- 
broke  (d.  1751),  David  Hume  (d.  1776),  Edward 
Gibbon  (d.  1794). 

Closely  related  to  Deism  was  Arianism  (Socinian- 
ism),  which  insisted  on  the  reality  of  revelation  in 
the  Scriptures,  but  denied  the  essential  deity  and  aton- 
ing work  of  Christ.  This  worked  far  more  harmfully 
among  the  masses  of  Christians  than  Deism.  Founded 
by  Samuel  Clarke  (d.  1729),  followed  by  Whiston 
(d.  1752)  and  Daniel  Whitby  (d.  1726). 

Deism  and  Socinianism  called  forth  able  defenders 
of  Christianity:  Joseph  Butler  (d.  1752),  bishop  of 
Bristol,  later  of  Durham ;  Daniel  Waterland  (d.  1740), 
Wm.  Warburton  (d.  1779),  Geo.  Barkeley  (d.  1753), 
and  others. 

I.  Dissenters  ( Congregationalists,  Baptists,  Qua- 
kers, Presbyterians)  were  deeply  affected  by  the  gen- 
eral decline  in  morals  and  religious  fervor.  Not  only 
was  there  no  progress  in  the  early  part  of  the  period, 
but  positive  decline.  Presbyterians  were  swept  out  of 
existence  by  Socinianism;  Calvinistic  Baptists  became 
hyper-Calvinistic,  dead  till  toward  end  of  period. 
Arminian  Baptists  almost  perished  from  Socinianism ; 
reorganized  and  started  afresh  by  Dan  Taylor  (1770) . 


OF   CHURCH   HISTORY  279 

C ongregationalists  and  Quakers  suffered  decline  in  the 
same  way. 

2.  Anglican  Church  showed  most  serious  decay. 
Some  two  hundred  clergymen  (nine  bishops,  including 
Ken  and  Sancroft)  refused  to  swear  allegiance  to 
William  and  Mary  (hence  called  non-jurors),  support- 
ing the  Stuarts  and  regarding  themselves  as  the  true 
church,  they  kept  up  separate  organization  to  1805. 
Union  of  Scotland  with  England  (1707),  admitting 
Presbyterians  to  Parliament,  roused  high  churchmen; 
punishment  of  Sachverel,  1709;  triumph  of  Tories, 
1 7 10;  George  I  (1714-27)  allied  himself  with  Whigs 
in  favor  of  toleration;  sermon  by  Hoadley,  Bishop  of 
Bangor  (171 7),  favoring  liberty  of  conscience,  pre- 
cipitated the  "Bangorian  Controversy" ;  Convocation 
impeached  him  and  was  itself  suppressed  by  the  gov- 
ernment, 1 71 7.  General  decline  until  beginning  of  the 
Wesleyan  revival. 

3.  Rise  of  Methodism.  The  Methodist  movement 
was  begun  (1738)  by  John  Wesley  (1703-91),  Chas. 
Wesley  (1708-88),  and  George  Whitefield  (1714-70), 
all  Oxford  men,  excellent  scholars,  linguists.  Wesleys 
of  an  old  and  honored  family,  sons  of  high-church 
rector  of  Epworth;  John  entered  Oxford  1720, 
bachelor  1724,  ordained  1725,  fellow  and  Greek  lec- 
turer 1726,  a  position  which  he  held  till  1735,  assisting 
his  father  at  Epworth  1727-9,  when  he  returned  to 
Oxford;  Charles  was  known  as  "Methodist,"  because 
of  his  methodical  observance  of  the  regulations  of  the 
University;  they  Whitefield  and  others  formed  a 
"Holy  Club"  for  Bible  study,  prayer  and  practical 
work,  and  soon  the  name  "Methodists"  earned  a  reU- 


28o  A   GUIDE   TO   THE   STUDY 

gious  meaning.  Charles  had  entered  Oxford  1726, 
became  bachelor  1730,  tutor,  ordained  1735;  Wesley s 
went  out  as  missionaries  to  colonists  and  Indians  at 
Savannah  1736-8;  contact  with  Moravians  on  the  trip, 
and  after  their  return  in  London  led  to  conversion  of 
John  in  England,  May  24,  1738.  White  field,  son  of 
an  innkeeper,  entered  Oxford  1732,  was  converted 
1735,  ordained  1736,  went  as  missionary  to  Georgia. 
All  three  began  evangelizing  in  England  1739;  opposi- 
tion of  church  authorities  led  to  open-air  preaching; 
England,  Scotland,  Wales,  Ireland  and  America  evan- 
gelized. Whitefield  was  moderate  Calvinist,  powerful 
preacher,  without  organizing  ability;  Lady  Hunting- 
don gave  him  access  to  the  nobility,  built  churches, 
supported  pastors,  founded  Trevecca  College,  S. 
Wales;  his  followers,  called  ''Lady  Huntingdon  Con- 
nection," Calvinistic  in  doctrine  and  congregational  in 
polity,  were  never  very  thoroughly  organized. 

Charles  Wesley  was  the  poet  of  Methodism  (6,500 
hymns),  itinerant  preacher  to  1756,  when  he  settled 
as  pastor  at  Bristol;  later  at  London.  John  Wesley, 
preacher  (42,000  sermons)  and  organizer  of  Meth- 
odism, evangelical  Arminian,  insisting  on  personal 
assurance  of  salvation,  the  witness  and  sanctification 
of  the  Spirit,  reproducing  Moravian  piety;  powerfully 
impressing  the  middle  and  lower  classes ;  never  wished 
to  separate  from  the  Anglican  church;  held  services 
at  other  hours,  organized  societies  in  the  church,  built 
chapels,  long  used  lay  workers  refusing  to  begin  or- 
daining. His  organisation  grew  out  of  the  exigencies 
of  the  work :  Local  societies  organized  into  classes  with 
class  leaders,  a  steward  and  local  lay  preachers ;  several 


OF  CHURCH   HISTORY  281 

societies  formed  a  circuit,  with  "circuit  riders"  and 
a  presiding  elder ;  above  these  was  the  conference  of 
preachers.  Wesley  preached  moral  responsibility, 
free  grace,  universal  atonement,  possible  sanctification 
and  assurance.  It  was  a  new  joyous  type  of  Chris- 
tianity, full  of  song,  assurance,  emotion  and  vocal 
demonstration;  infant  baptism  retained,  immersion 
the  original  but  not  necessary  form,  service  taken  from 
English  prayer-book.  First  class-meeting  1739;  first 
conference  1744,  a  dispensary  1746,  a  tract  society 
1747.  First  academy  opened  1748,  Arminian  Maga- 
zine founded  1778;  Wesley  instituted  legal  proceed- 
ings to  make  permanent  the  conference,  and  ordained 
Coke  for  work  in  America  1784,  thus  beginning  the 
separation  which  was  completed  after  his  death. 

The  followers  of  Wesley  and  Whitefield  fell  into  a 
bitter  theological  feud.  Augustus  Toplady,  Rowland 
Hill  and  others  supported  Calvinism,  while  John 
Fletcher  of  Madeley,  and  others,  Arminianism. 

Scotland  and  Ireland  were  affected,  but  not  so 
deeply  as  England ;  but  Methodism  was  destined  to  do 
its  greatest  work  in  America. 


282  A   GUIDE   TO   THE   STUDY 


E.  AMERICA  IN  COLONIAL  PERIOD 

(A)     Spanish  and  Portuguese  America 

I .     Political  History 

In  1494  an  agreement  was  made  between  Spanish 
and  Portuguese  governments  by  which  the  former  re- 
ceived all  newly  discovered  lands  west  of  a  N.  and  S. 
line  370  leagues  west  of  the  Cape  Verde  Islands. 

Spanish  occupied  Cuba  151 1,  spread  thence  to 
Florida  1565  on,  to  Mexico  1521,  thence  westward  to 
the  Philippines  and  southward  through  Central  and 
along  W.  coast  of  S.  America — Peru  1524  on,  thence 
northward  to  Panama  1537  and  southward  through 
Chile  into  Argentina,  founding  Buenos  Aires  1580. 
The  vast  territory  was  at  first  divided  into  two  "king- 
doms" governed  by  a  "council  of  the  Indies"  through 
viceroys:  (i)  New  Spain,  including  N.  American 
possessions  and  Venezuela,  capital  Mexico;  (2)  New 
Castile  including  the  Isthmus  and  all  S.  America  (ex- 
cept Brazil  and  Venezuela).  Later  was  formed  (3) 
viceroyalty  of  New  Granada  (including  Venezuela, 
Colombia,  Ecuador)  in  1718;  (4)  Viceroyalty  of  Rio 
de  la  Plata  1776,  capital  Buenos  Aires.  Smaller  gov- 
ernments known  as  captain-generalships  made  at  dif- 
ferent times  (Guatemala  1527,  Venezuela  1773,  Cuba 
1777,  Chile  1778)  formed  basis  for  modern  S.  Amer- 
ican states. 

Brazil  began  to  be  settled  by  Portuguese  after  15 10; 


OF   CHURCH   HISTORY  283 

in  1534  the  country  was  divided  into  captaincies, 
united  under  one  governor-general  1549.  Brazil  never 
so  dominated  by  the  home  government  as  were  the 
Spanish  possessions. 

Both  Spanish  and  Portuguese  almost  destroyed  the 
Indians  through  forced  labor;  Negro  slaves  imported 
from  Africa  in  great  numbers;  white,  red  and  black 
races  greatly  mixed. 

2.     Religious  History 

In  the  Spanish  dominions  Cath.  church  was  firmly 
established  and  organized,  but  was  wholly  subject  to 
crown  of  Spain  which  formed  dioceses,  founded 
churches,  monasteries,  etc.,  appointed  bishops  and  all 
other  ecclesiastical  officials,  having  the  complete  pa- 
tronage of  the  church;  papal  laws  and  documents 
must  be  approved  by  gov. ;  many  monastic  orders 
(Jesuits,  Dominicans,  Franciscans)  great  endow- 
ments; inquisition  established  1569  at  Lima  had  juris- 
diction over  goods,  literature,  life,  but  not  over  In- 
dians; zealous  mission  work  among  Indians  in  early 
days,  declined  toward  end  of  period.  Archbishoprics 
of  Lima,  La  Plata,  Mexico ;  many  bishoprics ;  Univer- 
sities of  Mexico,  Lima,  Bogota,  Cordoba. 

First  bishop  in  Brazil  1552  at  Bahia.  Jesuits  did 
much  mission  work  among  Indians  whom  they  or- 
ganized for  political,  religious  and  economic  purposes ; 
church  never  well  organized  and  vigorous  as  in 
Spanish  possessions. 


284  A  GUIDE  TO  THE  STUDY 


(B)     NORTH  AMERICA 

H.  ii.  875-91 ;  N.  ii.  563f,  615-18,  658,  (^--j-j,  691-6. 

I.     General  Characteristics 

All  types  of  European  Christianity  were  trans- 
planted by  the  colonists  to  America,  and  in  some  cases 
by  law  established. 

a.  Catholics.  Spanish  and  Portuguese  Catholics 
settled  S.  and  Central  America,  Mexico,  W.  Indies  and 
southern  parts  of  North  America;  French  settled  the 
region  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  Great  Lakes  and  the  Miss- 
issippi, 1604  onward;  English  Catholics,  Maryland. 
Catholics  did  much  mission  work  among  the  Indians, 
many  of  whom  were  soon  converted  to  that  faith. 

b.  Protestants  settled  along  the  Atlantic  seaboard  in 
small,  independent,  more  or  less  hostile  colonies. 
In  Virginia  (1607  onward)  Anglicans;  also  in  N.  and 
S.  Carolina  population  was  mainly  Anglican,,  so  in 
Georgia  (1735  onward);  in  New  England  (1620  on- 
ward), Independents  and  Puritans,  fleeing  from  perse- 
cutions of  Laud;  in  New  York  (New  Amsterdam  till 
1664),  Dutch  Reformed  (Presbyterians),  1623  on- 
ward ;  in  New  Jersey,  Swedish  Lutherans;  West  Jersey 
and  Pennsylvania,  Quakers  (1682  onward);  German 
Lutherans,  Moravians  and  Reformed  in  Pennsylvania 
and  in  small  colonies  elsewhere;  Scotch  Irish  Presby- 
terians at  various  points  in  the  Alleghenies;  French 
Huguenots  in  South  Carolina  and  elsewhere;  Roger 


OF  CHURCH  HISTORY  285 

Williams,  a  Congregationalist,  driven  from  Boston, 
founded  colony  with  freedom  of  conscience  at  Provi- 
dence 1636,  and  1639  became  Baptist  and  organized 
first  Baptist  church  in  America. 

c.  The  hard  and  dangerous  conditions  of  life,  to- 
gether with  meager  means  of  cultivating  the  moral, 
religious  and  intellectual  life,  caused  degeneration  for 
a  time.  Nevertheless  the  colonists,  especially  in  New 
England,  were  devoted  to  education.  Public  schools 
as  early  as  1640;  Harvard  College  founded  1636; 
William  and  Mary  1693,  Yale  1701,  Princeton  1746, 
Brown  1764. 

d.  Negro  slavery  introduced  at  Jamestown  161 9 
and  by  1790  there  were  over  700,000;  came  direct 
from  Africa  or  from  W.  Indies,  chiefly  used  in  South 
where  their  labor  was  more  profitable  than  in  the 
colder  climate  of  the  North. 

e.  The  Revolutionary  War  (1776-83)  and  associa- 
tion with  French  worked  to  injury  of  religion.  The 
Constitution  (1789)  established  the  first  secular  state 
in  which  the  state  is  freed  from  all  obligation  to  sup- 
port or  control  religion,  assuring  freedom  of  con- 
science. 

II.     Separate  Churches 

I.  The  Church  of  England  was  established  in 
Virginia  (first  church  Jamestown,  1607),  the  Caro- 
linas,  New  York  (after  1664)  and  Maryland  (after 
1655).  In  Virginia  it  was  well-endowed;  everywhere 
except  Virginia  it  contained  only  a  minority  of  the 
population,  often  with  unworthy  ministers,  subject  to 
England.     They  were  largely  loyalists  in  the  Revo- 


286  A   GUIDE  TO   THE   STUDY 

lution,  at  the  close  of  which  they  were  weak  and  dis- 
couraged. They  then  separated  from  Enghsh  Church, 
revised  the  "Prayerbook"  to  suit  the  changed  condi- 
tions and  adopted  the  name  of  "Protestant  Episcopal 
Church,"  1785.  Samuel  Seabury  was  consecrated 
their  first  bishop  by  non-juring  bishops  of  Scotland 
1784;  Provost  and  White  by  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury 1787. 

2.  CoNGREGATiONALiSTS  formed  the  "established 
church"  of  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut  (First 
Church  Plymouth  1620,  Mayflower),  Calvinistic  in 
theology,  semi-presbyterial  in  polity,  theocratic, 
church  membership  being  necessary  to  citizenship; 
many  able  and  learned  men.  Cambridge  Platform 
(1648)  strongly  presbyterial ;  public  profession  of 
faith  necessary  to  communion;  only  those  in  com- 
munion w^ere  eligible  to  office  and  the  rights  of  citizen- 
ship or  had  right  to  have  their  children  baptized;  all 
required  to  assist  in  support  of  the  ministry;  object 
was  to  eliminate  dissent;  Half -way  Covenant  (1662) 
extended  privileges  of  baptism  to  children  of  persons 
who  were  moral  and  orthodox  even  though  not  them- 
selves church  members  and  admitted  to  communion; 
in  practice  this  regulation  was  extended  to  include 
children  of  others;  it  aroused  bitter  controversy  and 
led  to  sharp  decline  of  religion;  it  was  called  "Stod- 
dardism."  Repeated  attempts  to  unite  Congregation- 
alists  and  Presbyterians  failed.  Presbyterianizing  of 
Congregational  churches  by  associations  in  Massachu- 
setts (1705)  was  never  effective,  but  in  Connecticut 
it  was  accomplished  by  Saybrook  Platform  (1708). 

Immorality,    deadness    and    Socinianism    affected 


OF  CHURCH   HISTORY  287 

American  churches  of  the  period  as  those  of  England. 
The  tide  was  turned  by  Great  Awakening.  It  was 
begun  by  Gilbert  Tennant  and  other  Presbyterians 
in  middle  colonies  (1726  onward);  furthered  and 
strengthened  by  Jonathan  Edwards  at  Northampton 
(1734  onward),  assisted  by  visits  from  Geo.  White- 
field  throughout  all  the  colonies  1739  onward.  Many 
thousands  converted.  The  revival  aroused  much  oppo- 
sition in  New  England  among  the  churches  and 
preachers  of  all  communions,  and  by  Harvard  and 
Yale.  Churches  split,  newly  converted  people  sepa- 
rated and  formed  new  evangelical  churches,  known  as 
''Separates"  or  "New  Lights";  many  preachers  pro- 
fessed conversion.  The  movement  developed  a  new 
type  of  theology  known  as  "New  England  Theology," 
a  modified  evangelistic  Calvinism.  Revival  continued 
at  intervals  almost  to  the  Revolution. 

3.  Presbyterians — English,  Dutch,  Irish — scat- 
tered in  the  Jerseys,  Pennsylvania,  Delaware,  Mary- 
land, Virginia  and  elsewhere,  began  to  be  aroused 
and  organized  1683  by  Francis  Makemie;  first  presby- 
tery (Philadelphia)  organized  1705;  1716  the  seven- 
teen churches  of  America  organized  first  synod;  iy2g 
the  synod  adopted  the  Westminster  symbols.  Two 
types  or  tendencies  now  manifest  themselves.  The 
"Old  Side"  insisted  on  educated  ministry  and  discour- 
aged the  revival,  "New  Side"  insisted  on  converted 
ministry  and  favored  revival;  split  1741  to  1758; 
Presbyterians  were  strong  patriots  and  wielded  great 
influence  in  the  Revolution. 

4.  American  Baptists  sprang  up  on  American  soil 
and  have  been  but  slightly  reinforced  by  immigration. 


288  A  GUIDE  TO  THE  STUDY 

Roger  Williams  (1604-83)  reached  conviction  that 
only  immersion  of  a  believer  was  baptism,  was  bap- 
tized by  E.  Holliman  and  then  baptized  Holliman  and 
others  (1639),  thus  forming  the  first  Baptist  church 
in  America,  at  Providence,  R.  I.  He  and  his  followers 
were  Calvinistic  ("Particular")  Baptists;  soon 
Arminian  (''General")  Baptists  appeared  and  quickly 
got  the  lead.  The  church  split  and  the  Calvinistic 
wing  eventually  died.  Other  churches  arose  gradually 
at  Newport  and  elsewhere.  They  too  were  troubled 
with  division  over  Arminianism,  the  keeping  of  the 
seventh  day  ("Seventh  Day  Baptists"),  imposition  of 
hands  on  newly  baptized  ("Six  Principal  Baptists"). 
Baptists  grew  very  slowly  to  Great  Awakening,  Provi- 
dence, Philadelphia  and  Charleston  being  chief  centers. 
Philadelphia  Association  organized  1707.  Great 
Awakening  opposed  by  many  Baptists,  but  it  put  Cal- 
vinism in  the  ascendancy  and  aroused  Baptists  to  more 
evangelistic  zeal.  Many  of  the  Pedo-Baptist  converts 
("Separates"),  especially  in  New  England,  became 
Baptists  known  as  ''Separate  Baptists''  1750  onward; 
the  older  Baptists  were  then  called  ''Regular  Baptists." 
Transplanted  from  New  England  to  Virginia  and 
North  Carolina  by  Shubal  Stearns  and  Daniel  Mar- 
shall, the  "Separate  Baptists"  flourished  greatly 
(Sandy  Creek  Association).  The  two  parties,  at  first 
unfriendly,  were  almost  entirely  united  before  end  of 
century,  forming  in  Virginia  and  N.  Carolina  and 
Kentucky  the  "United  Baptists/'  London  Confession 
of  1689  was  adapted  and  adopted  by  the  Philadelphia 
Association  (1742),  and  hence  is  known  as  Phila- 
phia  Confession  of  Faith  (B.  C.  F.  293-9)  >  ^^so  the 


OF   CHURCH   HISTORY  289 

English  "Baptist  Catechism."  Rhode  Island  College, 
now  Brown  University,  was  founded  1764,  James 
Manning  first  president. 

5.  Other  Denominations,  (a)  Catholics  were 
very  few  and  discouraged  at  close  of  Revolution,  (b) 
Lutherans  (began  to  be  organized  by  Miahlenberg 
1743)  and  Moravians  in  depressed  condition,  (c) 
Quakers  persecuted  by  Massachusetts  1656-60  (three 
men,  one  woman  executed),  settled  in  New  Jersey, 
Delaware  and  Pennsylvania  1681  (latter  under  patron- 
age of  Wm.  Penn  was  founded  on  basis  of  religious 
freedom),  flourished  greatly  till  toward  end  of  period, 
(d)  Methodists  began  their  career  in  New  York  1766 
(Philip  Embury  and  Barbara  Heck),  then  in  Maryland 
and  Virginia;  first  conference  1773;  Wesley  ordained 
Thos.  Coke  superintendent  for  America  1784.  Coke 
ordained  Erancis  Asbury  in  Baltimore  (Dec,  1784) 
and  they  organized  the  "Methodist  Episcopal  Church." 
Wesley  gave  them  a  liturgy,  rules,  and  a  modification 
of  39  articles  for  a  creed  (CC.  III.  807-13). 


290  A  GUIDE  TO  THE  STUDY 


THIRD  DIVISION,  1789  TO  1914 
A.     Eastern  Christianity 

K.  Sec.  206,  7. 

A.  Eastern  orthodox  church  is  the  most  conserva- 
tive, reactionary  and  ineffective  type  of  Christianity. 
During  this  period  of  enlightenment  and  progress  it 
has  remained  stationary  and  obstructive.  It  numbers 
some  120,000,000  of  population  of  several  nationali- 
ties, unified  in  the  main  in  doctrine  and  worship,  but 
using  different  languages  and  divided  in  government; 
education  is  neglected,  no  literary  or  missionary  in- 
terest or  activity,  morals  low;  has  spread  only  with 
expansion  of  Russian  domain.  During  the  period 
Turkey  has  been  gradually  driven  from  S.  E.  Europe, 
freeing  many  orthodox  Christians  who  have  set  up 
national  churches;  Russia  has  greatly  expanded  over 
N.  Asia,  everywhere  establishing  the  orthodox  church 
with  its  powers  of  life  and  death. 

I.  Orthodox  church  in  Turkey.  It  is  under  patriarch 
of  Constantinople  (appointed  by  Sultan)  and  synod 
of  twelve  bishops  chosen  every  two  years  by  their 
colleagues;  oppressed,  inactive  and  ineffective;  uses 
Greek  language  in  services,  is  tenacious  of  its  theology 
and  customs,  resists  Mohammedanism  but  makes  no 
converts  from  it.  Patriarchates  of  Antioch  (c.  100,- 
000,  patriarch  residing  at  Damascus),  Jerusalem  (c. 
15,000)  and  Alexandria  (c.  8,000  under  English  rule) 
are  ecclesiastically  subject  to  patriarch  of  Constanti- 


OF   CHURCH   HISTORY  291 

nople.  Archbishopric  of  Cyprus  (c.  200,000)  never 
entirely  subject  to  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  re- 
cently freed  from  Turkey. 

2.  Churches  of  S.  E.  Europe  freed  from  Turkish 
rule  in  this  period  are  those  of  Greece,  Bulgaria, 
Servia,  Rumania,  Albania.  They  have  been  organized 
in  independence  of  Constantinople  as  national  churches. 
(i)That  of  Greece  (c.  2,000,000)  is  largest  in  size, 
most  vigorous,  progressive  and  intelligent;  war  of 
independence  (182 1-9)  led  to  founding  of  monarchy 
1830;  Greeks  are  intelligent,  with  system  of  pubHc 
and  private  general  and  technical  education.  University 
of  Athens;  keen  politicians,  many  newspapers.  The 
church  is  governed  by  a  Holy  Synod  (five  ecclesiastics, 
Metropolitan  of  Athens  president),  thirty-two  bishops 
nominated  by  king,  c.  5,000  priests,  many  monks; 
Protestants,  Roman  Catholiqs,  Jews  and  Mohamme- 
dans also  present;  Constitution  of  1864  guarantees 
toleration  to  all  creeds  without  civil  disabilities. 

(2)  Servia  began  struggle  for  freedom  1804,  be- 
came autonomous  principality  under  Turkish  suzer- 
ainty 1830-79,  since  then  a  hereditary  constitutional 
monarchy.  Population  c.  3,000,000;  compulsory  edu- 
cation but  much  ignorance. 

The  Church,  independent  of  Constantinople,  gov- 
erned by  synod  of  bishops  under  Metropolitan  of 
Belgrade;  ecclesiastical  courts  and  canon  law  still  in 
operation;  liberty  of  conscience  unlimited,  liberty  of 
worship  for  Roman  Catholics,  Jews,  Mohammedans 
and  some  Protestants. 

(3)  Bulgaria  suffered  frightfully  in  struggle  for 
freedom;  became  an  autonomous  principahty  under 


cii)2  A  GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 

Turkish  suzerainty  1878;  independent  hereditary  king- 
dom 1908;  population  c.  5,000,000,  mostly  small 
farmers;  compulsory  education  since  1891 ;  intelligent, 
moral,  patient,  persistent,  progressive  people. 

The  National  Church,  having  c.  3,000,000  popula- 
tion, was,  under  Turkish  rule,  subject  to  patriarch  of 
Constantinople  who  appointed  Greek  bishops  and 
clergy  (Phanariots),  used  Greek  language  in  schools 
and  worship,  in  effort  to  Hellenize  the  country.  Owing 
to  bitter  opposition  of  the  Bulgars,  Turkey  in  1870 
established  a  free  Bulgarian  Exarchate  with  fifteen 
bishoprics;  the  exarch,  elected  by  the  Bulgarians,  has 
resided  at  Constantinople ;  Church  is  governed  by  Holy 
Synod  of  four  metropolitans;  laity  have  large  share  in 
selection  of  ecclesiastics  who  must  be  confirmed  by 
government;  worship  in  Slavonic;  religious  freedom 
guaranteed  and  clergy  of  all  denominations  are  paid 
by  the  state;  Protestants  (chiefly  Methodists),  Roman 
Catholics,  Jews,  Mohammedans  are  present. 

(4)  Rumania  began  struggle  for  freedom  c.  1804; 
first  recognized  as  a  principality  under  suzerainty  of 
Turkey,  it  had  stormy  history  till  its  independence  was 
recognized  by  Treaty  of  Berlin  1878;  became  hered- 
itary monarchy  1881 ;  population  of  c.  7,000,000 
much  mixed ;  compulsory  education  nominally  but  ma- 
jority of  people  are  illiterate;  progressive  and  am- 
bitious. 

The  State  Church,  recognized  as  independent  by 
patriarch  of  Constantinople  1885,  is  governed  by  Holy 
Synod,  an  ecclesiastical  body  under  presidency  of 
Archbishop  of  Bucharest;  bishops  elected  by  Congress 
and  Holy  Synod  sitting  together;  religious  and  civil 


OF  CHURCH   HISTORY  293 

freedom  guaranteed  to  all  creeds;  many  Jews,  some 
Protestants,  Armenians,  Roman  Catholics. 

(5)  Montenegro  (never  subject  to  Turkey)  and 
Albania  (made  free  hereditary  monarchy  19 14)  prin- 
cipally Greek  orthodox. 

3.  Russia  has  expanded  enormously  in  last  period, 
population  more  than  150,000,000  greatly  mixed;  gov- 
ernment autocratic  and  oppressive,  education  neglected 
or  repressed,  life  corrupt;  serfs  freed  1861. 

The  church  continues  a  department  of  state,  inert, 
reactionary,  obstructive,  numbering  c.  90,000,000. 
Russians  are  profoundly  religious  in  public  and  private 
life,  but  immoral  and  superstitious;  pilgrimages,  wor- 
ship of  icons,  church  attendance;  monastic  lands  con- 
fiscated under  Catherine  H  (1762-96);  like  secular 
clergy  they  are  supported  by  state ;  Bible  widely  circu- 
lated in  1 8th  century  is  not  now  forbidden;  clergy, 
released  from  bondage  of  caste  1864,  still  form  strict 
class,  without  adequate  education  or  sense  of  obliga- 
tion ;  must  be  married  while  bishops  must  be  unmarried. 
Many  sects  in  Russia,  some  very  ignorant  and  fanat- 
ical; Raskolniks  ("Old  Believers,"  several  millions, 
split  off  on  ritual),  Molokans  and  Doukhobors 
(Scriptural,  anti-ritual,  anti-hierarchical),  Stundists 
(in  S.  Russia,  essentially  Baptists,  result  of  German 
influence) ;  also  Roman  Catholics,  Jews,  Baptists,  Mo- 
hammedans, etc. 

(B)  Other  Eastern  churches,  i.  Armenian  church. 
After  fall  of  Constantinople  (1453)  the  Armenian 
patriarch  of  Constantinople  was  made  subject  to  the 
Sultan,  and  the  church  organization  (bishops,  priests, 
etc.)   given  political  authority  over  Armenians;  this 


294  A   GUIDE  TO   THE   STUDY 

degraded  the  church;  1828  part  of  Armenia  was  occu- 
pied by  Russia  and  the  catholic os  (of  Etchmiadzin) 
became  a  Russian  subject,  elected  by  his  own  bishops ; 
he  with  patriarchs  of  Constantinople  and  Jerusalem 
and  the  bishops  constitute  the  Holy  Synod,  the  govern- 
ing body.  Armenians,  the  most  important  Christian 
body  in  Turkey ;  many  peculiarities ;  have  suffered  ter- 
ribly from  Turks ;  depressed,  ignorant,  but  shrewd  and 
tenacious. 

2.  Jacobites  and  Nestorians  in  Persia  and  elsewhere 
are  few  and  greatly  depressed.  Copts  in  Egypt  under 
English  rule  are  beginning  to  improve;  likewise  the 
Abyssinians,  who  still  have  many  non-Christian  pecul- 
iarities. 

(C)  Protestant  missions  specially  from  America  and 
England  have  flourished  since  2nd  quarter  of  19th 
century ;  effort  has  been  directed  for  most  part  toward 
awakening  and  reforming  existing  churches  rather 
than  conversion  to  Protestant  views ;  good  schools  for 
men  and  women  at  many  points,  notably  Robert 
College,  Constantinople,  and  Syrian  Protestant  College, 
Beirut.  This  work  is  done  in  many  parts  of  the  Turk- 
ish empire. 


OF   CHURCH   HISTORY  295 


B.  Western  Christianity 
General  Characteristics 

This  has  been  in  many  respects  the  most  progressive 
and  glorious  period  in  the  world's  history. 

I.  Politically.  (a)  Growth  of  constitutional, 
popular  government  has  been  marked;  (b)  growth 
in  size  and  power  of  United  States;  (c)  unification  of 
Germany,  foundation  of  the  Empire  1870;  (d)  unifi- 
cation of  Italy  and  establishment  of  united  kingdom 
1870;  (e)  winning  of  freedom  by  Spanish  and 
Portuguese  colonies  in  S.,  Central  and  N.  America, 
all  of  which  then  established  republican  governments; 
(f)  France  becomes  republic  (1870),  Brazil  1890,  Por- 
tugal 1912;  (g)  Kingdom  of  Holland  founded  1815, 
Belgium  1830,  Norway  secedes  from  Sweden  and  be- 
comes kingdom  1906;  (h)  Holy  Roman  Empire  dis- 
solved and  Austrian  Empire  formed  1806;  (i)  Austria 
reduced  by  the  loss  of  N.  Italy  and  the  Netherlands, 
Spain  by  the  loss  of  her  whole  colonial  empire  1898; 
(j)  China  in  1840  and  Japan  in  185 1  opened  to  foreign 
commerce,  religion  and  settlement.  Japan  adopts  west- 
ern education,  science  and  government  and  takes  place 
as  one  of  the  great  nations.  China  becomes  republic 
1912.  (k)  Russia  expands  over  N.  Asia  (Siberia)  to 
the  Pacific.  (1)  Turkey  is  almost  driven  from  Europe 
and  several  independent  Christian  states  set  up  in  S.  E. 
Europe — Greece  declared  her  independence  1821  and 
founded  kingdom  with  approval  of  European  powers 


296  A  GUIDE  TO  THE  STUDY 

1832 ;  Servia  became  independent  principality  181 7  and 
kingdom  1882;  Bulgaria  became  semi-independent 
principality  1878,  and  an  independent  kingdom  1912; 
Rumania  became  a  principality  1861  and  kingdom 
1881,  kingdom  of  Albania  formed  1914;  (m)  Africa 
divided  among  the  great  powers,  who  colonize  and  ex- 
ploit it,  principal  portions  being  held  by  the  Protestant 
powers  England  and  Germany;  (n)  wonderful  expan- 
sion of  English  speaking  peoples;  (o)  Hague  Peace 
Conferences  1899  ^^^  ^9^7  ^^^  wide  adoption  of  prin- 
ciple of  arbitration  and  other  means  of  limiting  the 
probability  and  horrors  of  war;  (p)  Geneva  Conven- 
tion (Red  Cross)  1864  for  care  of  sick  and  wounded; 
(q)  tremendous  growth  of  international  law  for  the 
amelioration  of  the  horrors  of  war  and  the  protection 
of  neutrals. 

2.  Religiously  it  has  been  marked  by  (a)  expan- 
sion of  Greek  Church  in  territory  and  political  power, 
(b)  by  rise  of  Roman  Catholic  states  of  Italy,  Belgium 
and  all  American  states  from  Mexico  southward;  de- 
cline of  Catholic  Spain,  Austria  and  France;  (c)  rise 
of  Protestant  states  of  Holland,  Germany,  Norway 
and  the  great  British  colonies  of  Canada,  S.  Africa, 
New  Zealand  and  Australia;  great  expansion  of  the 
Protestant  United  States;  all  the  newly  settled  lands 
except  S.  America  are  Protestant;  (d)  expansion  of 
Protestantism  through  missions  into  all  parts  of  the 
world;  (e)  separation  of  church  and  state  in  all  the 
newer  nations,  in  Ireland  (1869)  ^^^  France  (1905), 
in  Geneva,  Basel,  Portugal;  (f)  adoption  of  reHgious 
toleration  in  practically  all  lands,  Christian  and  non- 
Christian;  (g)   dissolution  of  all  ecclesiastical  courts 


OF   CHURCH  HISTORY  297 

and  states,  including  the  papal  state  (1870) ;  (h)  great 
expansion  of  Protestant  missionary  interest  and  activ- 
ity among  all  denominations  at  home ;  vast  societies  for 
disseminating  information  and  gathering  funds;  (i) 
rise  of  many  auxiliary  Christian  organizations  such  as 
Sunday-schools  (Robt.  Raikes  1780),  Young  Men's 
Christian  Association  (Geo.  Williams  1844),  Salvation 
Army  (Wm.  Booth  1861),  Young  People's  Societies 
(F.  E.  Clark  1881),  rise  of  women's  missionary  soci- 
eties ;  Catholic  organizations  of  laymen  such  as  Knights 
of  Columbus;  (j)  rise  of  several  new  denominations 
especially  in  America — Mormons,  Disciples,  Christian 
Scientists,  etc. — more  recently  a  tendency  toward  union 
among  Protestants  at  many  places;  (k)  tremendous 
interest  in  the  Bible;  revisions  and  translations,  pop- 
ular study,  study  in  schools  and  colleges,  critical  study 
(lower  and  higher),  exploration  of  Bible  lands;  (1) 
decline  of  interest  in  dogmatic  theology,  creeds,  cate- 
chisms ;  emphasis  on  the  application  of  Christian  prin- 
ciples to  practical  life;  (m)  great  expansion  of  reli- 
gious press;  (n)  extensive  charities;  (o)  home  mis- 
sions and  revival  type  of  Christianity;  (p)  vigorous 
criticism  of  Bible  and  life  of  Christ,  going  from  Ger- 
many to  America  and  other  lands,  dividing  all  churches 
into  hostile  camps. 

3.  Socially  and  Economically  the  period  has 
been  marked  by  (a)  rise  of  the  masses  in  education, 
wealth,  comfort,  influence;  (b)  complete  abolition  of 
slavery  in  all  Christian  lands;  (c)  adoption  of  universal 
manhood  suffrage  in  many  countries  (and  in  some 
countries  woman's  suffrage) ;  (d)  tremendous  aggrega- 
tions of  capital  in  conflict  with  organized  labor;  (e) 


298  A   GUIDE  TO   THE   STUDY 

struggle  with  slum,  intemperance,  gambling,  "the  social 
evil";  (f)  general  diffusion  of  intelligence  through  the 
daily,  weekly,  monthly  and  quarterly  press  and  the  great 
multiplication  of  books;  (g)  enormous  increase  of 
wealth,  from  manufacture,  agriculture,  commerce,  min- 
ing; (h)  advance  in  surgery  and  medical  knowledge, 
resulting  in  improved  health,  lower  death  rate  (espe- 
cially among  children)  and  consequent  longer  life;  (i) 
consequent  rapid  expansion  of  population;  (j)  various 
migrations  of  peoples;  (k)  increasing  religious  com- 
plexity due  to  extension  of  denominations  everywhere. 

4.  Educationally,  (a)  Widespread  adoption  of 
free  school  system  supported  by  the  state  from  prim- 
ary school  to  university,  often  compulsory  in  lower 
grades;  illiteracy  has  almost  disappeared  from  some 
countries;  (b)  great  literature  (mainly  favorable  to 
Christianity)  in  Germany,  France,  England,  Norway, 
America,  Russia,  Italy.  ■ 

5.  Discoveries  and  Inventions,  (a)  Almost  the 
entire  surface  of  the  earth  has  been  explored,  the  N. 
pole  having  been  discovered  by  Peary  191 1  and  S.  pole 
by  Amundsen  19 12;  (b)  wonderful  discoveries  in  all 
natural  sciences — astronomy,  geology,  chemistry,  zool- 
ogy, biology,  etc.;  (c)  subjection  of  steam  and  elec- 
tricity to  service  of  man. 

6.  Thought.  Intellectual  activity  has  been  very 
great,  (i)  It  has  been  predominantly  scientific,  de- 
veloping the  doctrine  of  evolution  which  has  modified 
every  phase  of  thought  (Darwin  1859);  (2)  his- 
torical method  and  attitude  have  been  applied  to  every 
phase  of  life;  political  history  and  church  history  have 
been   recast   and   rewritten;   ancient   history   revolu- 


OF  CHURCH  HISTORY  299 

tionized;  the  history  of  society,  etc.,  written  for 
first  time;  (3)  philosophical  thought  rather  decayed 
(Fichte,  ScheUing,  Hegel,  Herbart,  Lotze,  Schopen- 
hauer, Spencer)  in  first  half  of  period,  gradually  re- 
viving since  i860;  (4)  much  thought  is  materialistic, 
semi-pantheistic,  anti-supernatural,  rationalistic,  skep- 
tical. 

I.    Catholic  Church  in  General 

N.  ii.  442-67,  492-518;  H.  ii.  757-9,  77of,  853-5;  K.  Sees.  185-91; 
A.  iii.  386-423 

I.  French  Revolution,  i 789-1814  profoundly 
aflfected  the  whole  church  and  all  Europe.  It  was  an 
efTort  at  "Liberty,  equality,  fraternity;"  it  was  aimed 
at  state  and  church  as  then  constituted ;  due  to  reaction 
against  absolutism  and  oppression  in  state,  wealth  and 
corruption  in  church,  to  skepticism  and  even  atheism ; 
state  and  church  allies  against  the  people.  Upper 
clergy  were  wealthy,  worldly,  corrupt ;  the  lower  clergy 
poor,  ignorant,  inefficient.  Church  owned  half  the 
landed  and  much  other  property  of  France,  was  recip- 
ient of  royal  gifts  and  enjoyed  right  of  demanding 
tithes;  the  clergy  (one-hundredth  of  the  population) 
enjoyed  one-fifth  of  total  income  of  France.  Finan- 
cial embarrassment  of  the  government,  due  to  extrava- 
gance, compelled  calling  of  the  Estates  General  (clergy, 
nobility,  commons)  which  became 

(i)  The  National  or  Constituent  Assembly  (May, 
1 789- April,  1 79 1 ) .  Third  Estate  quickly  got  the  upper, 
hand,  declared  themselves  to  be  the  only  rightful  repre- 
sentatives of  the  French  people,  were  joined  by  the 
other  estates,  and  undertook  to  reform  France  and 


300  A  GUIDE  TO  THE  STUDY 

give  her  a  constitution.  The  effort  was  made  to  sweep 
away  royalty,  the  nobility  and  make  the  church  a  de- 
partment of  state.  The  church  became  involved  on 
account  of  its  vast  wealth  which  was  demanded  to 
meet  the  financial  needs  of  the  state.  The  most  im- 
portant acts  bearing  on  the  church  were :  Abolition  of 
tithing  system  Aug.  lo;  Dec.  21  freedom  of  worship 
and  full  citizenship  given  Huguenots,  and  a  little  later 
to  all  other  dissenters ;  Nov.  2  all  church  property  was 
confiscated  and  the  state  undertook  to  support  the 
church;  Feb.  14,  1790,  all  monastic  orders  were  abol- 
ished. 

Finally  on  July  12  was  adopted  "The  Civil  Consti- 
tution of  the  Church,"  abolishing  existing  organization 
of  the  church  in  France  and  severing  its  relation  to  the 
papacy ;  establishing  ten  metropolitans  and  eighty-three 
bishops  (instead  of  136)  with  dioceses  corresponding 
to  political  divisions ;  bishops  and  priests  to  be  chosen 
by  electors  as  other  officers  of  state,  inducted  into  office 
by  metropolitans  and  bishops  after  swearing  allegiance 
to  the  state;  a  theological  seminary  in  every  diocese. 
Most  of  the  clergy,  higher  and  lower,  refused  to  sw^ear 
allegiance  to  this  constitution  ("non-juring  clergy"), 
were  deposed  and  their  places  filled  by  others  (  "Consti- 
tutional Clergy").  Pius  VI  condemned  the  constitu- 
tion (April,  1 791)  and  forbade  the  new  clergy  to  exer- 
cise their  functions;  in  response  the  Assembly  confis- 
cated Avignon  and  Vennaissin  which  belonged  to  pope ; 
rioting  and  violence  begin;  many  clergy  and  nobles 
emigrate. 

(2)  Legislative  Assembly  (Oct.,  1 791 -Sept.,  1792) 
proceeded  further  against  the  clergy;  forbade  special 


OF  CHURCH  HISTORY  301 

priestly  dress,  gave  the  registration  of  births,  deaths, 
and  marriages  to  civil  officers ;  great  violence  by  mobs 
which  massacre  non-juring  priests  at  Avignon,  Paris 
(300,  an  archbishop  and  two  bishops),  Meaux,  Rennes, 
Lyons  and  elsewhere.  Arrest  of  the  king,  Louis  XVI, 
Aug.  10,  1792,  and  calling  of 

(3)  National  Convention  (Sept.,  1792-Oct.,  1795). 
Sept.  21,  1792,  France  was  declared  to  be  a  republic; 
and  Jan.  21,  1793,  king  was  executed.  This  began 
the  Reign  of  Terror;  coalition  of  foreign  powers 
against  the  Revolution ;  non-juring  clergy  banished  in 
April,  some  40,000  leaving  the  land,  and  constitutional 
clergy  allowed  to  marry;  Sept.  22  names  of  days  and 
months  changed  and  a  ten  day  period  substituted  for 
week;  execution  of  Marie  Antoinette  in  October,  Chris- 
tianity abolished  in  November  and  worship  of  Reason 
instituted,  the  state  being  officially  atheistic;  churches 
desecrated  throughout  France. 

Reaction  set  in  in  1794;  worship  of  Reason  abol- 
ished, a  Supreme  Being  and  the  immortality  of  the 
soul  recognized  on  motion  of  Robespierre;  Catholic 
and  Protestant  worship  permitted  1795  at  first  in  pri- 
vate and  then  in  public;  gradually  the  church  build- 
ings were  restored  to  religious  purposes,  but  religion 
had  no  legal  standing  till  concordat  of  1801. 

(4)  The  Directory  (iyg<,-g).  Coalition  war  against 
France  1792  onward;  great  French  success;  Napoleon 
appears  1794;  Directory  gradually  restores  order  in 
the  state  and  carries  on  successful  war  against  outer 
foes;  1795  pope  joined  the  coalition  against  France; 
to  punish  him  Napoleon  invaded  Italy,  captured  Rome 
179B,  dissolved  papal  state,  founded  Roman  Republic, 


302  A   GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 

carried  pope  prisoner  to  France  where  he  died  1799; 
succeeded  by  Pius  VII  (1800-20).  French  defeats 
lead  to  independence  of  papal  state.  During  this  period 
there  was  no  change  in  ecclesiastical  conditions  in 
France;  all  churches  enjoyed  a  limited  tolerance. 

5.  Consulate  (1799-1804).  Napoleon  first  consul 
for  life  and  exercising  all  real  power.  Concordat  with 
Pius  VII  in  1 80 1 — Catholicism  recognized  not  as  the 
state  church  but  as  the  religion  of  the  majority  of 
Frenchmen  without  political  advantage;  all  bishops 
("Constitutional"  and  "non-juring")  required  to  re- 
sign and  number  of  bishops  reduced  to  sixty ;  all  arch- 
bishops and  bishops  to  be  nominated  by  government, 
consecrated  by  pope;  all  higher  clergy  compelled  to 
take  oath  of  allegiance,  lower  clergy  must  be  satis- 
factory to  government ;  clergy  paid  by  state ;  pope  re- 
nounced all  right  to  confiscated  property,  and  forgave 
married  clergy;  civil  control  of  worship.  No  provi- 
sion for  restoration  of  monasticism. 

Protestants  and  Jews  soon  accorded  same  rights  as 
Catholics,  their  clergy  and  worship  being  free  and 
supported  and  controlled  by  state.  Lutherans  were 
granted  a  seminary  at  Strassburg  and  the  Reformed 
one  at  Montauban.  In  the  "Organic  Articles"  Napo- 
leon also  established  civil  marriage. 

By  Peace  of  Luneville  February,  1801,  France  re- 
ceived all  territory  on  left  bank  of  Rhine,  and  to  com- 
pensate the  various  states  which  lost  territory  in  this 
way  (Bavaria,  Baden,  Wurtemburg,  Prussia,  Olden- 
burg, Hanover)  most  of  the  ecclesiastical  states  and 
all  the  imperial  cities  (except  Liibeck,  Hamburg, 
Bremen,  Frankfort,  Augsburg,  Nuremburg)  were  con- 


OF   CHURCH   HISTORY  303 

fiscated  and  apportioned  among  them  in  1803.  This 
act  was  of  vast  importance.  It  unified  German  terri- 
tory, secularized  the  ecclesiastical  states,  incorporated 
the  free  cities,  and  practically  put  an  end  to  the  empire 
which  was  dissolved  in  1806. 

(6)  Empire  (1804-15).  Napoleon  crowned  em- 
peror Dec.  2,  1804,  after  anointing  by  Pius  VII  at 
Paris ;  soon  broke  with  the  pope,  dissolved  papal  state 
and  incorporated  it  into  France  ( 1809),  and  when  pope 
protested,  imprisoned  him  in  Savona  and  Fontaine- 
bleau,  where  (Jan.,  1813)  pope  signed  concordat  giving 
up  papal  state  and  transferring  the  curia  to  Avignon. 
Napoleon's  reverses  led  him  to  release  the  pope 
March  10,  18 14,  who  reorganized  Jesuit  Society  Aug. 
7,  1814. 

2.  Period  OF  Reaction  (1815-40).  The  Congress 
of  Vienna  (1814-15)  nullified  much  of  Napoleon's 
work:  In  Spain,  Sardinia,  Tuscany,  Modena  the  old 
dynasties  were  restored;  Austria  received  Milan, 
Venice,  Illyria,  Dalmatia,  Salzburg,  Tirol,  Gallicia; 
Prussia  was  enlarged;  the  Kingdom  of  the  Nether- 
lands was  created ;  Russia,  Sweden,  and  England  were 
all  enlarged ;  the  papal  state  was  restored  to  the  pope ; 
in  lieu  of  the  old  empire,  dissolved  in  1806,  was  formed 
the  "German  Bund"  of  38  states  with  a  constitution 
guaranteeing  religious  freedom  to  all  confessions. 
This  Congress  began  a  general  reaction  against  the 
"illumination"  and  Revolution.  In  the  Catholic  church 
it  took  the  form  of  Ultramontanism,  that  is,  emphasis 
on  papal  infallibility  and  authority,  opposition  to  civil, 
intellectual  and  academic  freedom,  bitterness  towards 
Protestantism,    Bible    societies.    Freemasons;    as    the 


304  A   GUIDE  TO   THE   STUDY 

church  lost  its  political  influence  and  its  property 
bishops  became  more  subservient  to  the  pope.  Favor- 
able concordats  with  German,  Dutch,  South  American 
and  other  states;  Jubilee  1825;  emancipation  of  Cath- 
olics in  England  1829;  widespread  revolution  1830, 
Belgium  becomes  independent  Catholic  state;  success- 
ful struggle  with  Prussia  over  mixed  marriages  and 
academic  freedom.  Austria  called  in  to  suppress  re- 
bellion in  papal  state  1831. 

3.  Pius  IX  (1846-78),  at  first  a  liberal,  becomes  a 
reactionary  after  the  year  of  the  Revolution  (1848), 
favoring  Jesuits,  fostering  superstition,  condemning 
every  form  of  freedom,  etc.  Assumed  authority  to 
declare  immaculate  conception  of  Mary  to  be  a  dogma 
of  the  church  December  8,  1854  (CC.  II  2iif) ;  pub- 
Hshed  Syllabus  of  Errors  Dec.  8,  1864  (CC.  II  213- 
33) ;  celebrated  19th  centennial  of  death  of  Peter 
and  Paul  (1867) ;  Vatican  Council  (Dec.  8,  1869-Oct. 
20,  1870)  declared  infallibility  of  pope  (CC.  II  234- 
71).  Italy  was  gradually  united  under  Victor  Eman- 
uel, king  of  Sardinia  (1859-70),  who  captured  Rome 
(Sept.  20,  1870)  and  made  it  capital  of  the  new  king- 
dom; the  papal  state  was  confiscated;  the  pope  was 
permitted  to  retain  Vatican,  St.  John  Lateran  and  the 
castle  Gandolfo,  and  to  have  his  own  postal  system, 
government,  officials,  handsome  income.  The  Vatican 
Council  led  to  schism  of  some  70,000  Catholics,  chiefly 
in  Austria  (Old  Catholics  1873  onward) ;  they  held  to 
Scripture  versus  tradition,  councils  of  first  five  cen- 
turies, comm.union  in  both  kinds,  marriage  of  clergy, 
use  of  vernacular,  renunciation  of  papal  authority;  the 
body  has  not  flourished,  but  dwindled. 


OF  CHURCH  HISTORY  305 

4.  Latest  Period  (1878-1914),  Leo  XIII  (1878- 
1903),  "peace  pope,"  a  skilled  diplomat,  but  reaction- 
ary, ultramontane ;  restored  friendly  relations  with  the 
various  powers.  Pius  X  (1903-1914),  pious,  earnest, 
but  mediaeval  and  unskilled  in  diplomacy ;  at  war  with 
France  1904  onward;  new  Syllabus  of  Errors  and 
encyclical  on  Modernism  1907.  In  1908  he  removed 
United  States,  Canada,  Netherlands  and  some  other 
countries  from  the  position  of  mission  fields. 

5.  Catholic  Missions  have  been  vigorously  pushed 
in  all  parts  of  the  world ;  directed  by  the  Propaganda 
at  Rome,  supported  by  various  societies,  e.  g.,  "Society 
for  the  Propagation  of  the  Faith,"  founded  1822  at 
Lyons,  "Association  of  the  Holy  Childhood  of  Jesus," 
founded  at  Paris  1844,  and  others ;  also  by  various  gov- 
ernments (especially  the  French  which  has  been  till 
recently  the  protector  of  Catholic  missions)  by  income 
of  the  orders  and  invested  funds  of  the  Propaganda. 
Jesuits,  Franciscans,  Dominicans,  Lazarists  and  some 
other  monastic  orders  furnish  the  missionaries; 
equipped  with  schools  and  colleges  for  training  mis- 
sionaries, educating  children,  etc. ;  strong  religious 
press ;  missions  well  organized  at  home  and  in  most  of 
the  nations  of  the  earth.  Roman  Catholics  now  num- 
ber in  population  some  255,000,000. 

6.  Modernism  is  a  term  applied  by  the  pope  to  a 
recent  movement  for  larger  freedom  in  Catholic  church 
specially  in  Italy  and  France;  due  to  rationalism,  reli- 
gious revival,  study  of  biblical  exegesis  and  Church 
history,  philosophy  and  natural  sciences.  Pius  has  ex- 
ercised all  his  power  to  suppress  it. 


3o6  A   GUIDE  TO   THE   STUDY 

II.  Christianity  in  Countries  of  Europe 

Christian  history  now  becomes  so  complex  that  it 
seems  best  to  treat  it  by  countries. 

I.  Germany 

References:  N.  ii.  544-63;  H.  ii.  745-52;  K.  Sees.  176-84,  193- 
97 ;  A.  iii.  424-30. 

(i)  Political  History.  Wars  of  Napoleon  greatly 
harried  but  thoroughly  aroused  Germany;  political 
conditions  much  modified,  ecclesiastical  states  and  free 
cities  almost  disappear;  empire  was  dissolved  1806 
leaving  the  states  free  and  independent ;  German  Bund 
formed  at  Congress  of  Vienna  181 5  composed  of 
thirty-five  states,  of  which  Austria,  Prussia  and  Bavaria 
were  the  leading  ones;  tarifif  union  1833;  revolutions 
force  the  princes  to  grant  constitutions  in  several  of 
the  states  1848;  attempt  to  form  a  German  Empire 
1848-9  failed  through  rivalry  of  Prussia  and  Austria; 
in  war  of  1864  Austria  and  Prussia  take  from  Den- 
mark the  duchies  of  Lauenburg,  Schleswig  and  Hol- 
stein;  the  war  of  1866,  Prussia  and  small  North  Ger- 
man states  defeat  Austria  supported  by  Saxony, 
Hanover,  both  Hesses,  Bavaria,  Wurtemburg,  Baden, 
etc. ;  German  Bund  dissolved ;  Austria  excluded  from 
Germany;  Schleswig-Holstein,  Hanover,  Electoral 
Hesse,  Nassau  and  Frankfort  incorporated  in  Prussia ; 
a  North  German  Bund  formed  1867  under  leadership 
of  Prussia;  victorious  war  with  France  1 870-1  led  to 
organization  of  German  Empire  Jan.  18,  1871,  at 
Paris  with  Prussia  at  its  head,  including  all  the  German 
states    except    Austria.      The    various    states    retain 


OF   CHURCH   HISTORY  307 

their  own  governments  with  much  local  freedom  and 
authority. 

(2)  Religious  History,  (a)  Astounding  intellectual 
activity  along  all  lines :  Church  history,  exegesis,  theol- 
ogy, lives  of  Christ,  church  government;  Germany  the 
theological  teacher  of  the  world;  weakness  in  practical 
matters  such  as  missions  (home  and  foreign),  char- 
ities, preaching.  Churches  supported  by  the  states, 
dissenters  tolerated  with  considerable  restrictions; 
much  irreligion  and  atheistical  socialism;  universities 
usually  rationalistic,  anti-supernatural. 

(b)  Union  of  Lutherans  and  Reformed  into  "Evan- 
gelical Church,"  begun  in  18 17  at  the  Reformation 
Jubilee,  was  a  union  in  cultus  and  constitution.  It  met 
considerable  opposition  especially  among  Lutherans. 
It  began  in  Hesse-Nassau  and  Prussia;  union  in  the 
Palatinate  1818,  Baden  1821,  Hesse  1823,  etc.;  uni- 
versities of  Halle  and  Wittenberg  united  at  Halle. 
The  union  and  the  introduction  of  a  new  liturgy  caused 
a  small  body  of  Lutherans  to  secede  and  remove  to 
America. 

(c)  German  Theology.  Rationalism  continued 
throughout  the  period,  but  was  early  modified  by  the 
philosophy  of  Kant  (1724- 1804),  Fichte  (1762- 18 14), 
Schelling  (1775-1854)  and  Hegel  (i 770-1 831),  and  by 
the  theolog}^  of  Schleiermacher  (1768-1834),  Neander 
( 1 789-1850)  and  others.  Schleiermacher  was  the 
most  important  theologian  of  the  century,  overcom- 
ing rationalism  through  emphasis  on  feeling  as  the 
basis  of  religion,  and  giving  Christian  experience  a 
place  in  theology.  Apparently  almost  dead  rationalism 
was  aroused  anew  (1835)  by  D.  F.  Strauss'  "Life  of 


3o8  A   GUIDE  TO   THE   STUDY 

Jesus,"  by  the  Tiibingen  School  of  N.  T.  criticism 
founded  by  F.  C.  Baur  (1826-60)  and  the  O.  T.  school 
of  Wellhausen,  Kuenen  and  others. 

Albrecht  Ritschl  (1822-89),  the  founder  of  the 
school  of  theology,  now  represented  by  Harnack, 
Kaftan  and  others,  which  sought  to  free  religion  from 
the  dominance  of  philosophy  and  science  by  refusing 
to  make  metaphysical  statements  that  go  beyond  expe- 
rience. Christ  reveals  God  and  has  the  value  of  God 
to  men  (value- judgments),  about  his  essential  nature 
no  statement  is  made;  metaphysics  as  a  source  of 
knowledge  has  no  value ;  emphasis  on  person  of  Christ, 
kingdom  of  God,  etc.,  immensely  influential  in  Ger- 
many. 

The  Mediating  School  were  marked  by  ability,  piety, 
learning;  have  handled  Bible  freely,  but  have  insisted 
on  divinity  of  Christ,  fact  of  revelation  and  miracle, 
the  substantial  accuracy  of  Scripture;  notable  repre- 
sentatives were  Tholuck,  Dorner,  Rothe,  Lange,  et  al. 
In  the  first  quarter  of  the  19th  century  an  important 
revival  sprang  from  this  circle  in  many  N.  German 
states,  leading  to  formation  of  conventicles,  societies 
for  foreign  and  home  missions,  care  of  the  sick,  etc. 

High  Church  Lutheran  party  insisted  on  importance 
of  church  and  ordinances.  Stahl,  Franz  Delitzsch,  and 
other  prominent  clergymen  and  professors. 

Expulsion  of  Jesuits,  Redemptorists,  Lazarists,  etc., 
1872,  in  the  Kulturkampf  in  Prussia  (1873-87),  which 
was  a  struggle  to  control  ultramontane  tendencies  of 
the  Catholics. 

Other  denominations  established:  Baptists  began 
work  in  Germany  1834;  persecuted  and  grew  slowly; 


OF  CHURCH   HISTORY  309 

now  have  more  than  40,000  members;  seminary  at 
Hamburg,  organizations  extending  over  the  empire. 
Methodists  also  at  work. 

2.  Austria  (K.  Sec.  198)  was  leading  power  at 
Congress  of  Vienna,  receiving  all  N.  Italy,  but  has  lost 
enormously  in  power  and  political  importance  during 
the  period — lost  ItaHan  possessions  and  was  excluded 
from  newly  organized  German  Empire  in  1870;  has 
been  reactionary  in  politics  and  religion,  but  there 
has  been  progress.  In  1833  Lutheran  and  Re- 
formed churches  were  given  full  freedom  in  Hun- 
gary and  Transylvania.  In  Austria  there  has  de- 
veloped since  1897  a  strong  "Loose  from  Rome"  move- 
ment; several  thousand  persons  have  become  Protest- 
ants, chiefly  Lutherans.  Protestantism  is  now  toler- 
ated and  protected  by  government  in  all  these  lands,  is 
supported  by  German  churches  and  is  making  progress, 
but  the  government  and  the  great  majority  of  the 
people  are  staunchly  Catholic. 

3.  Italy.  (K.  Sec.  204.)  Was  left  by  Congress 
of  Vienna  (1815)  divided;  so  it  remained  to  1859, 
revolutions  and  efforts  at  union  being  suppressed 
by  Austria  and  France ;  three  union  parties  ( i )  union 
under  pope,  (2)  union  as  a  republic  (Garibaldi),  (3) 
union  under  Sardinia  (Cavour  and  Sardinian  kings). 

Sardinia,  supported  by  France,  defeated  Austria 
1859,  thus  winning  Lombardy;  Tuscany,  Parma, 
Modena,  successfully  drove  out  their  rulers  and  united 
by  vote  with  Sardinia  March,  i860;  Garibaldi  over- 
threw the  government  of  the  two  Sicilys,  which  were 
then  incorporated  into  Sardinia  by  vote  (Oct.  i860) ; 
1 86 1  name  was  changed  from  Kingdom  of  Sardinia  to 


3IO  A   GUIDE  TO   THE   STUDY 

Kingdom  of  Italy;  1865  Florence  was  made  capital 
1866,  Italy  as  ally  of  Prussia,  received  Venice  from 
Austria,  and  when  French  troops  were  withdrawn 
(1870)  Rome  was  taken  Sept.  20,  and  (1871)  made 
capital.  Sardinia  had  tolerated  Protestants  since  1848 
and  united  Italy  gives  complete  religious  freedom  since 
1870.  In  1873  the  orders  were  banished  from  the 
province  of  Rome  and  in  1879  civil  marriage  before 
the  church  ceremony  was  made  compulsory.  Pope 
declares  himself  a  prisoner  in  the  Vatican  and  refuses 
the  stipend  from  Italian  government.  No  diplomatic 
relations  between  king  and  pope.  Now  30,000  or  more 
Waldenses;  small  contingent  of  Baptists  (American 
and  English)  and  American  Methodists. 

4.  Spain.  (K.  Sec.  205.)  Spain  had  begun 
to  decline  under  Philip  IV  (1621-65),  Dutch 
Netherlands  being  given  up  1648,  Portugal  reasserted 
its  independence  1640;  in  Wars  of  Spanish  Succession 
(1700-14)  Spain  lost  Belgian  Netherlands,  Naples, 
Sicily,  Sardinia,  Lombardy  and  Gibraltar;  Napoleon 
placed  on  throne  his  brother  Joseph  Bonaparte,  but  the 
Spanish  people,  assisted  by  English,  successfully  re- 
sisted; all  the  countries  on  the  American  mainland 
gained  their  independence  (1810-26)  ;  Florida  ceded  to 
United  States  1819;  government  unstable  throughout 
19th  century,  struggle  between  liberals  and  reaction- 
aries. 

Religiously  Spain  has  been  bitterly  Catholic  with  a 
growing  irreligious  liberalism.  Because  of  political 
activity  of  the  church  in  1833  the  cloisters  were  dis- 
solved, their  property  confiscated,  churches  robbed  of 
treasures,  the  number  of  bishoprics  reduced,  etc.     In 


OF  CHURCH  HISTORY  311 

the  fifties  the  church's  property  was  restored  or  paid 
for  and  the  new  constitution  guaranteed  reHgious  free- 
dom in  1869,  now  c.  15,000  Protestants.  Inquisition 
abolished  1834;  church  intolerant;  anti-clerical  demon- 
strations by  liberals  and  socialists;  Spain  lost  Cuba, 
Porto  Rico  and  Philippines  1898  in  war  with  U.  S.; 
sold  other  islands  to  Germany,  is  now  without  colonies. 

5.  In  Portugal  as  in  Spain  the  political  activity  of 
the  church  led  to  severe  measures  by  Dom  Pedro  after 
1834;  in  the  fifties  a  concordat  was  concluded  by  which 
some  of  the  losses  were  made  good,  but  in  19 10  the 
country  became  a  republic  and  the  church  was  disestab- 
lished, giving  complete  equality  to  all  confessions. 
Protestants  are  very  few,  and  there  is  much  socialistic 
unbelief. 

6.  France.  (N.  ii.  599-603;  K.  Sec.  203.) 
(i)  Political  History.  Monarchy  was  restored 
(Louis  XVIII)  by  Congress  of  Vienna  1815;  July 
Revolution  (1830)  overthrew  the  Bourbon  Charles  X 
and  raised  Louis  Philippe  to  the  throne;  monarchy 
overthrown  (1848)  and  second  Republic  formed 
(1848-52)  under  presidency  of  Louis  Napoleon  who 
is  elected  Emperor  (1852-70) ;  monarchy  lost  Alsace- 
Lorraine  and  was  again  overthrown  in  Franco-German 
war  (1870);  Third  Republic  was  formed  and  con- 
tinues to  present.  France  has  extended  its  influence 
over  much  of  N.  W.  Africa  but  has  no  important 
colonies.  Birthrate  has  so  decreased  that  there  is  no 
demand  for  emigration  or  colonies. 

(2)  Religious  History.  2l.  Catholicism.  Napoleon's 
concordat  remained  in  force  till  1905 ;  religious  orders 
gradually  returned,  some  legally,  others  illegally;  they 


312  A  GUIDE  TO  THE  STUDY 

engaged  in  teaching,  manufacture,  etc. ;  French  church 
fostered  superstition;  Lourdes  (1858),  holy  coat  of 
Treves  exhibited  1844  and  1891 ;  struggle  with  ultra- 
montane church  began  1880;  with  expulsion  of  the 
Jesuits,  the  subjection  of  other  orders  to  state  super- 
vision, the  establishment  of  compulsory  education  free 
from  clerical  control ;  1901  all  orders  were  expelled  and 
their  schools  suppressed.  Papal  violation  of  the  Con- 
cordat led  to  disestablishment  in  1905,  putting  the 
church  under  state  and  making  France  the  first  of  the 
older  states  to  disestablish  the  church ;  state  and  church 
are  at  present  in  deadlock  over  control  of  church  prop- 
erty. At  present  strong  critical  and  liberalistic  tend- 
ency in  French  Catholic  church;  atheism  is  rampant; 
general  religious  condition  deplorable. 

b.  Protestants  (Reformed,  Lutherans,  Jews)  sup- 
ported and  controlled  by  the  state  till  1905  when  they 
were  disestablished ;  few  Lutherans  outside  Alsace  and 
Lorraine  which  belong  to  Germany  since  1870.  Re- 
formed retained  their  seminary  at  Montauban  and 
founded  another  at  Paris  which  is  very  liberal ;  divided 
into  liberal  and  orthodox  wings;  "Union  of  Evangel- 
ical Churches,"  free  from  state,  formed  1848;  "Declar- 
ation of  Faith"  adopted  1872,  the  basis  of  the  state 
supported  church,  but  the  liberals  have  not  regarded  it. 
Reformed  number  c.  600,000.  Very  influential ;  a  few 
Baptists,  Methodists,  Presbyterians;  McAll  missions, 
complete  religious  freedom  with  compulsory  civil  mar- 
riage. 

7.  Switzerland.  (K.  Sec.  199.)  Made  a 
loose  independent  confederation  by  Congress  of 
Vienna  1815;  Catholics  seceded  1848,  but  were  over- 


OF  CHURCH   HISTORY  313 

powered  and  the  confederacy  strengthened;  frequent 
struggles  between  Cathohcs  and  government.  Increas- 
ing Hberalism  among  Protestants;  struggle  and  divi- 
sion; evangelicals  led  by  Haldane,  Malan,  Vinet  were 
persecuted;  church  still  established  in  all  cantons  ex- 
cept Geneva  and  Basel  which  have  recently  effected 
disestablishment,  Geneva  in  1907,  Basel  in  191 1;  rad- 
ical criticism  in  Universities  of  Zurich  and  Basel.  In 
1874  a  new  constitution  created  an  interconfessional 
school  system  and  made  civil  marriage  obligatory. 

8.  Holland  and  Belgium.  (K.  Sec.  200.) 
By  the  revolution  of  1830  the  Catholic  provinces 
of  the  Netherlands  became  an  independent  state,  Bel- 
gium. Since  then  there  has  been  constant  struggle  be- 
tween the  liberals  and  Ultramontanes  in  this  country; 
Protestants  have  flourished  in  recent  years,  numbering 
at  present  c.  40,000. 

In  Holland  the  Reformed  has  continued  to  be  the 
state  church,  but  Remonstrants,  Mennonites,  Luther- 
ans have  been  present  and  tolerated:  Increasing  ra- 
tionalism led  to  formation  of  an  independent  orthodox 
church  in  1839,  called  "Christian  Reformed  Church;" 
three  parties  developed  in  state  church,  ( i )  Strict  Cal- 
vinist,  led  by  A.  Kuyper;  (2)  Middle  party,  (3)  Rad- 
ical party,  ''Moderns,"  led  by  Kuenen  with  centre  in 
University  of  Ley  den ;  bitter  strife ;  strict  party  formed 
"Confessional  Union"  and  a  "Free  Reformed  Uni- 
versity" at  Amsterdam  1880,  in  1886  all  orthodox 
parties  united  into  the  "Reformed  Church  in  the  Neth- 
erlands" ;  liberal  party  formed  "Protestant  Federa- 
tion." No  doctrinal  tests  now  required  for  confirma- 
tion or  ordination.     Catholics  secured  toleration  and 


314  A   GUIDE  TO   THE   STUDY 

the  hierarchy  was  reorganized  1853  J  "ow  several  thou- 
sand Catholics  with  monks  and  nuns. 

9.  Scandinavian  Countries.  (K.  Sec.  201.) 
All  three  countries  were  suffering  from  rationalism 
and  dead  orthodoxy  at  beginning  of  period; 
all  enjoyed  a  period  of  revival  early  in  19th 
century. 

In  Denmark,  1849,  dissenters  were  given  full  civil 
rights,  1 85 1  civil  marriage  established,  1857  compuls- 
ory baptism  abolished,  1868  right  of  forming  independ- 
ent congregations  in  state  church  granted.  Baptists 
and  Methodists  both  flourishing. 

In  Szveden  persecution  of  the  evangelicals;  conver- 
sion from  state  church,  long  forbidden  under  penalty, 
was  first  allowed  i860;  dissenters  granted  full  civil 
rights  1870;  civil  marriage  1879.  Baptists  entered 
Sweden  1848  and  now  number  50,000;  Methodists  also 
flourish. 

In  Norway  religious  freedom  and  civil  rights  have 
been  granted  all  dissenters,  though  state  church  is  more 
intact  there  than  elsewhere.  Catholics  have  reentered 
all  three  countries  and  are  making  some  progress. 

10.  Scotland.  (N.  ii.  608-14;  K.  Sec.  202:6-8; 
H.  ii.  868-70.)  At  beginning  of  period  the  Scotch 
were  in  low  religious  condition ;  early  in  century  evan- 
gelical revival  led  by  Haldanes. 

Reviving  interest  roused  desire  for  more  freedom 
from  state;  the  act  of  the  General  Assembly  (1834) 
granting  congregations  right  to  veto  candidate  pre- 
sented by  patron  was  nullified  by  civil  courts ;  this  led 
1843  to  great  schism  led  by  Chalmers  (1780- 1847) 
and  to  formation  of  'Tree  Church  of  Scotland"  (470 


OF   CHURCH   HISTORY  315 

ministers,  most  evangelical  laymen,  all  missionaries 
went  out,  leaving  all  property  at  home  and  abroad  with 
state  church) ;  built  "Free  Church"  colleges  at  Edin- 
burgh, Glasgow,  Aberdeen;  evangelical  and  active  at 
home  and  abroad;  reaction  on  state  church  beneficial. 

Union  of  ''Secession"  and  "Relief"  churches  into 
"United  Presbyterian  Church  of  Scotland"  1847;  ac- 
tive in  evangelistic  and  missionary  work.  "United 
Presbyterian"  and  "Free  Church"  united  (1900)  to 
form  ''United  Free  Church  of  Scotland/'  property 
jeopardized  by  "Wee  Frees;"  final  settlement. 

Rationalism  had  affected  Scotch  but  little,  Calvinism 
remaining  intact.  Growing  liberalism  in  recent  years. 
W.  Robertson  Smith  deposed  from  Aberdeen  1881 ; 
Henry  Drummond,  Geo.  Adam  Smith  and  other  liber- 
als subjected  to  sharp  criticism.  Many  learned  and 
gifted  men  in  all  churches;  all  churches  actively  en- 
gaged in  mission  work;  independent  missionary  socie- 
ties as  early  as  1796;  state  church  began  mission  work 
1829  (Alex.  Duff  first  missionary)  ;  "Free  Church" 
began  work  1843. 

Catholics,  Anglicans,  Baptists,  Calvinistic  Metho- 
dists have  small  bodies  in  Scotland. 

II.  England.  Many  reforms  in  government;  vast 
colonial  power  developed;  mistress  of  the  seas. 

Religious  conditions  rapidly  improving  at  beginning 
of  period  owing  to  Methodist  revival;  great  activity 
and  power  among  all  denominations  throughout  the 
period;  not  greatly  affected  by  rationalism  and  criti- 
cism as  on  the  continent ;  growing  freedom  and  equality 
of  all  religious  beliefs;  many  great  modern  religious 
movements  started  in  England  in  this  period:    (i) 


3i6  A  GUIDE  TO  THE  STUDY 

Founding  modern  Sunday-school  at  Gloucester  by 
Robt.  Raikes  (Anglican),  1780;  (2)  beginning  of 
Protestant  missions  among  English  speaking  peoples 
by  William  Carey  (Baptist),  1792;  (3)  founding  Reli- 
gious Tract  Society  (Anglican),  1799;  (4)  founding 
British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  (interconfessional), 
1804;  (5)  founding  Young  Men's  Christian  Associa- 
tion by  Geo.  Williams  (Anglican)  at  London,  1840; 
(6)  founding  Salvation  Army  at  London  by  Wm. 
Booth  (Methodist),  1861 ;  (7)  EngHsh  prohibited  slave 
trade  1824,  abolished  slaves  in  English  domain  1833; 
this  action  affected  slavery  throughout  the  world. 

(i)  State  Church.  (N.  ii.  647-58;  K.  Sec. 
202:1-5;  H.  ii.  835-43,  856-63.)  The  Methodists 
constituted  a  strong  evangelical  party  in  Anglican 
Church  at  beginning  of  period ;  most  of  them  separated 
from  state  church  after  death  of  Wesley  1791,  but 
some  strong  evangelical  men  were  left  in  the  church, 
e.  g.,  John  Newton,  d.  1807,  Wm.  Cowper,  Thos. 
Scott,  Jno.  Venn,  Wm.  Wilberforce,  and  others:  (a) 
These  evangelicals  constituted  the  so-called  "Low 
Church  Party,"  and  have  gradually  declined  with  time, 
(b)  "Broad  Church  Party"  favored  German  methods, 
results  and  spirit,  demanding  utmost  freedom  in  doc- 
trine and  teaching;  the  most  prominent  were  Sidney 
Smith,  S.  T.  Coleridge,  Thos.  Arnold,  d.  1842,  Chas. 
Kingsley,  F.  D.  Maurice,  F.  W.  Robertson,  Milman, 
Farrar  and  others;  favored  liberalism  in  politics  and 
religion  and  seem  to  have  grown  with  time,  (c) 
"High  Church  Party,"  ritualistic,  romanizing,  insist- 
ing on  episcopal  succession,  the  church  as  saving  insti- 
tution, baptismal  regeneration,  real  presence  in  Supper, 


OF  CHURCH  HISTORY  317 

etc. ;  they  became  powerful  with  the  Tractarian  or 
Oxford  movement  (1833  onward)  and  have  continued 
to  grow  in  aggressiveness  and  power  to  present.  *'Trac- 
tarian  Movement,"  so  called  because  propagated  by 
use  of  tracts,  was  Catholicising  movement  of  great 
power;  it  was  led  by  Keble,  Pusey  (hence  called  Pusey- 
ites),  J.  H.  Newman;  Newman  joined  Catholics  1845 
and  was  followed  by  many  others,  professors,  clergy- 
men and  laymen. 

Controversies  among  the  parties  frequent  and  bit- 
terly fought  in  the  press  and  the  civil  courts.  By  the 
Gorham  case  1847  onward  the  courts  decided  Low 
Churchmen  had  place  in  the  English  Church;  by  con- 
troversies over  Hampden,  "The  Essays  and  Reviews" 
i860,  Bishop  Colenso  1863,  it  was  decided  that  Broad 
Churchmen  have  place  in  Anglican  Church;  whatever 
does  not  conflict  with  plain  meaning  of  XXXIX  Ar- 
ticles and  Prayer  Book  is  tolerated,  but  High  Church 
party  is  most  active  and  aggressive. 

Anglicans  have  done  active  mission  work  at  home 
and  abroad.  "Church  Missionary  Society"  1797,  the 
missionary  organ  of  the  evangelical  Anglicans;  "So- 
ciety for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel,"  revived  and 
directed  to  foreign  as  well  as  colonial  missions,  the 
organ  of  High  Church  Party;  other  missionary 
societies,  chiefly  High  Church. 

The  Anglican  Church  has  produced  a  number  of 
scholars  of  note,  especially  in  biblical  scholarship. 

(2)  Dissenters.  (H.  ii.  844-52.)  Have  been 
gradually  granted  more  freedom ;  right  of  founding 
schools  granted  1798;  Corporation  and  Test  Acts 
annulled   1826,  giving  dissenters  right  to  hold  civil 


3i8  A  GUIDE  TO  THE  STUDY 

office;  universities  opened  to  all  except  theological 
students  1854,  and  to  all  1871 ;  compulsory  church 
rates  abolished  1868. 

a.  Presbyterian  Church  of  England  reorganized 
1876;  new  doctrinal  statement  1889;  still  weak. 

b.  Congregationalists  have  flourished;  missions 
(London  Missionary  Society  1795),  Sunday-schools, 
education,  charities.  "Congregational  Union  of  Eng- 
land and  Wales"  formed  1832;  Declaration  of  Faith 
and  Principles  1833  (CC.  III.  730-4) ;  many  able 
men;  now  have  nearly  4,000  churches  and  400,000 
members. 

c.  Baptists  have  flourished ;  organized  "Baptist  Mis- 
sionary Society"  Oct.  2,  1792;  Sunday-schools  as 
early  as  1800;  Robt.  Hall,  d.  1831,  eloquent  preacher 
led  toward  open  communion;  many  churches  practice 
open  communion  and  open  membership;  Baptist 
Union  formed  1812,  strengthened  1832;  General 
Baptists  preserved  their  own  societies  and  schools  till 
1 89 1  when  there  was  complete  union;  Baptists  have 
had  many  able  preachers  and  missionaries;  Andrew 
Fuller  d.  181 5,  Wm.  Carey  d.  1834,  Robt.  Hall  d. 
1 83 1,  Chas.  Spurgeon  d.  1891,  Alex.  Maclaren  d. 
19 12;  have  eight  small  colleges  (theological  schools), 
500,000  members,  successful  foreign  work.  Welsh 
Baptists  stricter  as  to  conditions  of  membership  and 
communion. 

d.  Quakers.    Have  declined.    Now  weak. 

e.  Methodists.  (H.  ii.  828-34.)  Severed  all 
connection  with  state  church  on  death  of  Wesley 
1 79 1,  and  became  known  as  ''Wesleyan  Methodist 
Church'';    have    grown    in    numbers,    had    numerous 


OF   CHURCH   HISTORY  319 

schisms,  had  few  great  men,  laid  Httle  emphasis 
on  education,  entered  foreign  mission  work  late. 
''Methodist  New  Connection"  formed  1797  over  lay 
representation,  ''Primitive  Methodist  Church"  18 10 
over  revival  methods;  dispute  over  organ  led  to  for- 
mation of  "Wesley an  Protestant  Methodist  Church'' 
1828;  "Wesleyan  Methodist  Association''  founded 
1835;  another  schism  from  the  Wesleyan  Methodist 
Church  (1849)  united  (1857)  with  the  "Protestant" 
and  "Association"  Methodists  to  form  "Union  Metho- 
dist Free  Church."  In  181 1  Methodists  sent  out  first 
foreign  missionary,  and  1814  "Wesleyan  Missionary 
Society"  organized. 

f.  Catholics.  (H.  ii.  853-5.)  Permitted  to  hold 
services  1791  onward;  Catholic  emancipation  1829, 
admitting  to  civil  office  except  that  of  regent,  king, 
etc.,  reorganization  of  English  hierarchy  1850,  with 
archbishop  of  Westminster  and  some  bishops;  Trac- 
tarian  movement  started  Catholic  revival ;  rapid  growth 
to  present.     They  now  have  full  freedom. 

g.  Salvation  Army.  Wm.  Booth  (1829-1912),  a 
Methodist  evangelist  in  1878,  to  reach  the  outcasts 
of  E.  London,  organized  an  army  with  general,  gen- 
eral staff,  officers  of  various  ranks,  cadets,  soldiers, 
flag,  barracks,  parades,  etc.;  abandoned  all  church 
practices  (baptism,  eucharist,  ordination,  etc.)  ;  put 
men  and  women  on  exactly  same  basis  of  equality 
in  position  and  work ;  preaches  simple  gospel  on  streets, 
etc.,  using  all  possible  means  of  attracting  and  holding 
attention ;  now  some  80,000  officers  scattered  through- 
out all  civilized  lands. 

12.    Ireland.    Irish  Parliament  united  with  Ens:- 


320  A  GUIDE  TO  THE  STUDY 

lish  i8oi ;  Catholic  emancipation  1829  gave  freedom 
to  Irish  CathoHcs;  Anglican  Church  disestablished 
1869;  Trinity  College,  Dublin;  Presbyterian  Church 
in  Ulster  prospered,  great  revival  1859;  a  few  Bap- 
tists and  Methodists;  Ireland  passionately  Catholic 
in  the  South,  constant  friction  with  English  govern- 
ment. 

III.     Christianity  in  America 

1.  From  Mexico  Southward.  (K.  Sec.  209.) 
Spanish  and  Portuguese  Catholicism  holds  almost 
unbroken  sway  except  in  Argentina  and  Brazil, 
where  is  considerable  Protestant  immigration  and 
much  anticlerical  sentiment;  many  heathen  natives  in 
interior  of  S.  iVmerica ;  many  European  and  American 
Protestant  missions  in  Brazil,  Argentina,  Chile ;  people 
ignorant,  superstitious,  fanatical,  immoral,  lacking 
power  of  self-government  in  most  of  the  countries; 
all  are  now  republics  in  form  and  most  of  them  guar- 
antee religious  freedom,  but  the  intolerant  spirit  of 
Spanish  Catholicism  makes  Protestant  work  difficult. 
Brazil  has  c.  150,000  Protestants,  Argentina  c.  30,000 
and  Chile  c.  20,000;  other  states  have  few  or  none. 
The  Philippines  and  Porto  Rico  freed  from  Spain 
1898,  are  now  under  rule  of  U.  S. ;  schools  established, 
religious  freedom,  Protestant  growth. 

2.  British  Possessions  in  North  America  have 
many  French  CathoHcs  along  St.  Lawrence ;  elsewhere 
predominantly  Protestant;  Anglicans,  Presbyterians, 
Baptists,  Methodists,  all  well  equipped,  aggressive, 
flourishing;  missions  to  Indians  and  Eskimos. 

3.  United  States.     (K.  Sec.  208.)     (i)   Political 


OF  CHURCH  HISTORY  321 

History.  At  beginning  of  period  United  States 
extended  from  Atlantic  to  Mississippi  and  from 
Great  Lakes  to  Florida  line;  Louisiana  Purchase 
1803;  Florida  Purchase  1819;  annexation  of  Texas 
1845;  Oregon  obtained  1846;  cession  of  Mexican 
territory,  including  California,  etc.,  1848;  Gadsden 
Purchase  1853;  Hawaii  1898;  Porto  Rico  and  Philip- 
pines 1898.  Population  increased  from  c.  2,000,000 
to  90,000,000,  among  them  c.  10,000,000  Negroes, 
emancipated  1863.  Indians  gradually  dispossessed  and 
largely  exterminated;  gathered  in  reservations  in  the 
west  for  most  part. 

(2)  General  conditions  and  characteristics  of  reli- 
gious history;  (a)  Federal  Constitution  forbade  es- 
tablishment of  religion  by  Federal  Government  and 
led  to  disestablishment  by  state  governments ;  Virginia 
1802,  Connecticut  1832,  Massachusetts  1833;  (b) 
great  multiplicity  of  denominations  (c.  150),  trans- 
planted from  Europe  and  native;  (c)  tremendous  im- 
migration, alien  in  religion  and  ideals  to  free,  Prot- 
estant institutions;  recently  great  immigration  of 
Catholics  from  S.  Europe;  (d)  constant  shifting  of 
population  westward  and  into  cities;  (e)  enormous 
energies  put  into  subduing  and  developing  material 
conditions  and  resources  of  the  country;  (f)  quanti- 
ties of  money  spent  in  church  building,  due  to  growth 
of  population  and  church  membership,  increase  in 
wealth  and  refinement,  recent  development  of  Sunday 
school;  (g)  Christianity  has  been  practical  and  aggres- 
sive rather  than  doctrinal,  contemplative  or  reflective ; 
(h)  foreign  missions  18 10  onward  and  home  evan- 
gelism (protracted  meetings,  camp  meetings,  great  re- 


322  A   GUIDE  TO   THE   STUDY 

vivals)  have  been  pushed;  (i)  many  auxiliary  organi- 
zations :  Y.  M.  C.  A. ;  Y.  W.  C.  A.  ( founded  in  New 
York  1873);  Y.  P.  S.  C.  E.  1881,  various  Brother- 
lioods  1883  on,  King's  Daughters  1886,  Epworth 
League  1889,  B.  Y.  P.  U.  1891,  Y.  M.  I.,  woman's 
missionary  societies  1863  and  many  others;  (j)  great 
development  of  Sunday-school  institutes  and  Chautau- 
quas  for  popular  Bible  study;  (k)  efforts  at  reform 
— temperance,  "social  evil,"  municipal  reform;  (1) 
growing  emphasis  on  theological  education;  all  great 
denominations  have  well  equipped  theological  semi- 
naries unconnected  with  universities;  (m)  much  theo- 
logical literature — in  earlier  years  on  Systematic  The- 
ology; more  recently  on  practical  themes,  exegetical 
studies,  church  history;  (o)  preaching  has  been  prac- 
tical, pungent,  evangelistic,  hortatory;  (p)  church 
music  has  been  popularized,  but  debased;  (q)  religious 
press — weekly,  monthly,  quarterly — Bible  and  tract 
societies,  highly  developed  and  widely  used;  (r)  great 
development  of  educational  facilities  from  kindergar^ 
ten  to  universities,  supported  by  states  and  cities,  and 
by  private  beneficence;  a  nation  of  readers;  denomina- 
tional schools  highly  developed;  (s)  the  voluntary 
principle  has  left  a  large  part  of  the  population  out- 
side of  all  churches  and  made  necessary  a  vigorous 
missionary  evangelism;  (t)  a  large  influx  of  Jewish 
population  is  having  a  sensible  effect  upon  religious, 
social  and  economic  life,  especially  in  the  cities. 

(3)  Various  denominations.  Only  a  few  of  the 
more  important  can  be  noted. 

a.  Congregationalists.  (H.  ii.  897-900;  N.  ii. 
677-81;     Walker,    Hist.    Cong.     Chs.    in    U.     S.) 


OF   CHURCH   HISTORY  323 

have  been  among  the  foremost  in  Hterature,  learning, 
philanthropy,  education,  missions,  reforms,  etc.;  still 
largely  confined  to  New  England  and  the  North; 
growth  prevented  by  Unitarian  defection  and  by  "Plan 
of  Union"  (1801)  with  Presbyterians,  which  sent 
most  western  emigrants  into  Presbyterian  church; 
now  have  more  than  500,000;  well  equipped  with 
theological  seminaries:  e.  g.  Andover,  1808,  removed 
to  Harvard  1908;  Bangor,  181 1 ;  Yale  Divinity  School, 
1822;  Hartford,  1834;  Oberlin,  1835;  Chicago, 
1854;  Pacific  Theological  Seminary,  1869;  or- 
ganisation has  (i)  local  associations,  (2)  state  asso- 
ciations, (3)  National  Council.  Several  home  mission 
societies;  "American  Board  of  Commissioners  for  For- 
eign Missions,"  organized  1810,  oldest  foreign  mission 
society  in  U.  S.,  present  doctrinal  position  seen  in 
creed  of  1883  (CC.  HI.  910-15). 

b.  Out  of  Congregationalists  came  Unitarians  (Al- 
len and  Eddy,  His.  Unitarians  and  Universalists  in  U. 
S.)  1786  onward;  English  Socinianism  transplanted 
to  New  England  by  Hazlitt,  Freeman  and  others, 
worked  quietly  in  the  Congregationalist  body  until 
181 5,  when  it  was  found  that  Harvard  University 
and  many  churches  were  thoroughly  Socinian;  courts 
gave  church  property  to  majority;  most  Congrega- 
tional churches  in  and  around  Boston  went  over;  still 
largely  confined  to  this  region;  little  aggressive  work 
in  any  direction;  now  c.  70,000;  have  produced  many 
literary  men  of  prominence;  recently  Socinianism  has 
degenerated  into  simple  humanitarianism,  regarding 
Jesus  as  a  fine  example  to  follow;  the  body  has  been 
a  negative  critical  influence  lacking  inclination  and 


324  A   GUIDE  TO  THE   STUDY 

power  for  any  practical  aggressive  constructive  work ; 
no  creed,  congregational  polity,  mission  societies,  but 
a  diminishing  force. 

Closely  allied  to  Unitarianism  and  sharing  its  spirit 
is  Universalism;  founded  by  James  Relly  in  London, 
c.  1750,  transplanted  to  Massachusetts  by  John  Mur- 
ray, who  founded  first  church  1 779 ;  modified  Presby- 
terian polity ;  small  colleges  and  seminaries,  with  little 
influence;  c.  50,000  members. 

c.  Protestant  Episcopal  Church.  (N.  ii.  659;  H. 
ii.  894-6;  Tiffany,  His.  Protestant  Episcopal  Church 
in  United  States.) 

At  close  of  Revolution,  Anglican  church  was  greatly 
depressed;  Samuel  Seabury,  ordained  by  non-juring 
bishops  of  Scotland,  1784;  Wm.  White  and  Samuel 
Provost  by  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  1787;  "Protes- 
tant Episcopal  Church  in  U.  S."  organized  independent 
of  England,  1789;  Prayer  Book  and  XXXIX  Articles 
slightly  modified  are  used;  the  church  is  organized 
into  (i)  parish,  (2)  diocese,  (3)  General  Convention; 
the  latter  is  composed  of  "House  of  Bishops"  and 
"House  of  Clerical  and  Lay  Deputies'*  (four  clergy- 
men and  four  laymen  from  each  diocese),  meets  trien- 
nially  at  different  places  under  presidency  of  bishop 
longest  consecrated  (presiding  bishop),  and  legislates 
for  entire  church.  Episcopalians  did  not  prosper  till 
c.  18 10;  High  Church  tendencies  predominant;  great 
gain  in  more  recent  years,  chiefly  from  other  denomi- 
nations; almost  confined  to  cities;  "society"  church, 
discipline  lax,  S.  S.  and  missionary  activity  not  great ; 
several  colleges  and  theological  seminaries;  now  has 
over  500,000  communicants. 


OF   CHURCH   HISTORY  325 

"Reformed  Episcopal  Church"  organized  1873  ^S 
protest  against  baptismal  regeneration,  special  priest- 
hood of  clergy,  sacrifice  of  mass,  etc. ;  now  number 
c.  9,000  communicants.  Articles  of  Religion  adopted 
1875  (CC  ni  814-26). 

d.  Presbyterians.  (N.  ii.  618-23;  H.  ii.  900-2; 
Thompson,  His.  Presby.  Ch.  in  U.  S. ;  Scouller, 
Foster  and  Johnson,  United,  Cumberland  and  Presby- 
terian Church,  South.)  There  are  twelve  Presby- 
terian and  three  ''Reformed"  churches  in  U.  S.,  aggre- 
gating more  than  1,500,000  communicants. 

At  close  of  Revolution  Presbyterians  in  favorable 
position ;  they  have  never  been  a  popular  denomination, 
but  dignified,  of  high  character,  missionary  in  temper, 
but  wanting  in  evangelistic  gifts  and  work;  highly 
educated  ministry;  General  Assembly  organized  1788, 
adopting  Westminster  symbols  slightly  modified. 

The  great  revival  of  1801  in  Kentucky  led  to  or- 
ganization of  Cumberland  Presbyterian  Church  in 
1810;  it  was  semi-Arminian  in  theology  (Confession, 
CC.  HI.  771-6)  ;  education  not  required  in  clergy. 
The  effort  to  unite  with  the  N.  Presbyterian  church 
in  1907  has  only  partially  succeeded,  causing  much 
bitterness  and  unseemly  confusion  at  places. 

Split  between  "old"  and  "new  school"  Presbyterians 
1837  (Declaration  of  New  School,  CC.  III.  777-80)  ; 
was  not  a  geographical  division,  both  parties  being 
represented  both  North  and  South,  both  claiming  title 
of  General  Assembly;  "New  School"  split  on  slavery 
1854,  "Old  School"  1861 ;  in  South  the  two  schools 
united  1864  to  form  "Presbyterian  Church  in  U.  S." 
(S.  Pres.  Ch.),  and  in  1869  the  two  schools  united  in 


326  A   GUIDE  TO   THE   STUDY 

North  to  form  "Presbyterian  Church  in  U.  S.  A." 
(N.  Pres.  Ch.)  ;  both  churches  carry  on  mission  work 
at  home  and  broad. 

Northern  Church  has  following  Seminaries:  Prince- 
ton (1812),  Auburn  (1820),  Western  at  Allegheny, 
Pa.  (1827),  Lane  (1832),  Union  (1836),  McCormick 
(1859),  San  Francisco  (1871)  ;  Southern  Church  has 
Union  at  Richmond,  Va.,  Columbia  at  Columbia,  S.  C, 
and  theological  departments  at  University  of  Texas 
and  Southwestern  Presbyterian  University,  Clarks- 
ville,  Tenn. ;  Louisville  Seminary  is  controlled  by  the 
two  churches. 

Northern  Presbyterian  Church  (1903)  adopted 
some  additional  articles  and  declaratory  statements 
to  Westminster  symbols,  somewhat  softening  Calvin- 
istic  doctrine  of  election,  but  Southern  Church  pre- 
serves Westminster  symbols  unchanged. 

e.  Baptists.  (N.  ii.  696-699,  701-703;  H.  ii.  902f; 
Newman,  His.  Bapt.  Chs.  in  U.  S.) 

There  are  now  some  thirteen  or  more  Baptist  bodies. 
At  beginning  of  period  fewer  than  100,000,  now  c. 
5,500,000,  white  and  black  communicants;  increase 
largely  from  conversions ;  from  immigration  very 
little;  have  gained  on  population;  negroes  largely 
Baptist ;  more  white  Baptists  in  South  than  in  North ; 
one  of  the  great  popular  denominations ;  improvement 
in  educational  facilities,  culture,  wealth,  social  posi- 
tion ;  have  not  contributed  largely  to  literature,  science, 
higher  politics,  art ;  contributions  to  religious  literature 
largely  polemical,  theology,  homiletics,  church  history, 
exegetics,  etc. ;  have  been  practical,  active  in  home 
evangelism,   missions,   schools,   Sunday-schools,   etc.; 


OF   CHURCH   HISTORY  327 

effective  preaching;  behind  other  denominations  in 
gifts  for  missions. 

Organisation  has  been  rapid ;  only  few  district  asso- 
ciations at  beginning  of  period,  engaged  in  local  evan- 
gelization; increasing  interest  in  missions  and  educa- 
tion led  to  larger  organizations;  small  societies  at  be- 
ginning of  century;  conversion  of  Adoniram  Judson 
and  Luther  Rice  from  Congregational  to  Baptist  views 
led  to  organization  of  Missionary  Union,  1814,  at 
Philadelphia;  removed  to  Washington  1822,  to  Boston 
1826;  in  1817  it  undertook  Home  Mission  work  and 
1822  education  (Columbia  College,  Washington) ; 
withdrew  from  educational  and  home  mission  work 
1826;  Home  Mission  Society  founded  1832;  these 
organizations  led  to  formation  of  State  conventions, 
1 82 1  onward;  Baptist  General  Tract  Society  organized 
(1824),  changed  to  American  Baptist  Publishing  So- 
ciety 1840.  All  these  organizations  aroused  fear  and 
opposition,  especially  in  South,  causing  serious  anti- 
mission  split  1835  onward. 

Slavery  controversy  led  to  secession  of  Southern 
Baptists  in  1845,  ^^^  formation  of  Southern  Baptist 
Convention;  it  adopted  a  new  plan  of  organization — 
one  body  with  boards;  very  rapid  growth  in  South 
where  they  are  the  predominant  body  in  many  states. 

Organization  of  North  American  Convention  1905 ; 
Baptist  World  Conference  at  London  1905 ;  N.  Bapt. 
Conv.,  1907. 

Mission  Work  has  been  pushed  successfully;  many 
Baptists,  in  South  especially,  opposed;  due  to  fear  of 
increased  organization,  to  their  type  of  theology,  and 
to  selfishness;  split  1826,  forming  various  parties  of 


328  A  GUIDE  TO  THE  STUDY 

''Hardshells,"  "Anti-missionary,"  "Anti-effort," 
"Primitive  Baptists;"  100,000  now,  opposed  to  Sun- 
day-schools, all  societies,  high  Calvinists.  Baptists 
have  numerous  educational  institutions,  an  able  relig- 
ious press  and  well  equipped  seminaries :  Newton 
(1825),  Colgate,  Rochester,  1850,  Crozer;  S.  B.  T. 
Sem.  (1859),  S.  W.  Bap.  Sem.  (1907),  K.  C.  Sem., 
Theo.  Fac.  of  Univ.  Chicago;  doctrinal  position  best 
expressed  by  New  Hampshire  Articles  (B.  C.  F.  299- 

307)- 

Older  Baptist  parties  have  persisted  and  new  ones 
have  been  formed:  Freewill  Baptists,  by  Benj.  Randall 
(1779),  (Arminian,  open  communion.  Confession 
B.  C.  F.  310-29) .  Several  other  bodies  not  called  Bap- 
tists are  in  general  agreement  with  them ;  six  bodies  of 
Adventists  c.  60,000;  River  Brethren,  Church  of  God 
and  others. 

f .  Christians  and  Disciples  of  Christ.  (  N.  ii.  699ff . ) 
Early  in  19th  century,  five  Presbyterian  preachers 
(B.  W.  Stone)  in  Kentucky  and  Ohio  founded 
a  "Christian"  denomination;  earher  O'Kelley,  a 
Methodist  in  Virginia,  and  Abner  Jones,  a  Baptist 
in  Vermont,  had  done  likewise ;  these  three  had  united 
to  form  the  "Christians"  (Arian  Christology,  immer- 
sion of  believers  as  baptism,  opposition  to  creeds,  sec- 
tarian names,  etc.) ;  now  number  nearly  100,000. 

Thos.  Campbell,  a  Seceder  Presbyterian  preacher 
of  Ireland,  settled  in  Pennsylvania  1800;  his  son  Alex- 
ander studied  in  University  of  Glasgow,  came  under 
influence  of  Sandeman  and  Haldanes,  emigrated  to 
America  and  by  181 1  he  and  his  father  left  Presby- 
terians  and   organized   an   independent   church    (be- 


OF  CHURCH  HISTORY  329 

liever's  immersion,  rejection  of  creeds,  names,  human 
societies,  etc.) ;  18 13  their  church  joined  Redstone 
Baptist  Association  and  in  1823  the  Mahoning  Asso- 
ciation of  Ohio ;  they  disseminated  their  views  as  Bap- 
tists, through  Baptist  organizations;  gradually  the 
Baptists  became  conscious  of  serious  divergencies  in 
their  views  of  the  design  of  baptism,  work  of  the 
Spirit,  etc.,  and  excluded  them  in  1827;  Alex.  Camp- 
bell was  an  able  speaker,  with  a  good  deal  of  learning, 
opposed  creeds,  societies,  Sunday-schools,  missions; 
taught  baptismal  remission ;  Holy  Spirit  works  through 
Word  only;  Arminianism;  would  unite  Christendom 
on  basis  of  Biblical  Christianity;  called  his  movement 
a  "Reformation,"  hence  his  followers  known  as  "Re- 
formers" ;  B.  W.  Stone  and  many  of  the  "Christians" 
joined  him,  hence  confusion  as  to  name;  popularly 
known  as  "Campbellites" ;  now  divided  into  right  and 
left  wing ;  number  more  than  a  million  and  a  quarter, 
with  schools,  missions,  etc. ;  very  aggressive  and  pros- 
perous. « 

g.  Methodists.  ( N.  ii.  706-9 ;  H.  ii.  892-4 ;  Buckley, 
His.  Meths.  in  U.  S. ;  Alexander,  M.  E.  Ch.,  South.) 
Sixteen  bodies  with  c.  6,500,000  members. 

Methodists  at  close  of  Revolution  few  and  weak; 
marvelous  growth  since ;  now  probably  most  numerous 
Protestant  denomination  in  U.  S. ;  Thos.  Coke  was 
ordained  Superintendent  by  Wesley  (1784)  and  Francis 
Asbury  by  Coke  at  Baltimore  (1784),  when  the  socie- 
ties took  the  name  of  "Methodist  Episcopal  Church" ; 
government  was  at  first  wholly  in  hands  of  clergy; 
agitation  to  admit  laymen  to  church  councils  led  to 
formation  of  "Methodist  Protestant  Church"   1826; 


330  A   GUIDE  TO   THE  STUDY 

opposition  to  slavery  led  to  formation  of  "Wesleyan 
Methodist  Church"  1843  in  New  York;  pro-slavery 
sentiment  led  to  secession  of  Southern  societies  and 
organization  of  M.  E.  Church  South,  1845  j  i^i  interest 
of  stricter  discipline,  "Free  Methodist  Church,"  i860, 
in  New  York.  Organisation  (i)  local  church,  (2), 
circuit,  elder,  (3)  annual  conferences  presided  over 
by  bishop,  (4)  General  Conference  every  four  years, 
composed  of  equal  number  of  clergy  and  laymen; 
bishops  elected  by  General  Conferences,  preside  at 
annual  conferences,  ordain,  have  no  diocese ;  preachers 
may  remain  indefinitely,  but  are  appointed  at  every 
annual  conference ;  prosecute  education,  missions,  etc. ; 
a  great  popular  denomination  strongest  in  numbers. 

h.  Lutherans  (N.  ii.  563-7;  H.  ii.  903 f;  Jacobs, 
His.  Evang.  Luth.  Ch.  in  U.  S.),  some  23  or  more 
bodies  have  c.  2,250,000;  have  had  much  strife 
and  division,  have  lost  great  numbers  to  other 
denominations,  and  to  irreligion;  grown  chiefly  by 
births  and  immigration;  of  several  nationalities,  types 
of  life,  etc.,  each  with  its  own  organizations  and  work; 
German,  English  and  other  tongues  used  in  services; 
many  shades  of  opinion  and  indifferences  in  practice. 

i.  Catholics  (0' Gorman,  His.  Rom.  Cath.  Ch. 
in  U.  S.);  three  bodies  with  c.  13,000,000  popu- 
lation; were  few  at  beginning  of  period,  but  they 
have  outgrown  any  other  denomination,  claiming  four- 
teen millions  of  population;  growth  chiefly  from  births 
and  immigration,  though  some  conversions,  especially 
through  marriages;  now  thoroughly  organized  and 
equipped  with  schools  of  all  grades;  hostile  to  public 
schools ;  three  cardinals ;  American  Catholics  have  lost 


OF   CHURCH   HISTORY  331 

by  conversion  to  Protestantism,  but  are  looked  to  with 
hope  by  the  whole  church ;  in  some  respects,  more  free- 
dom here  than  elsewhere ;  ultramontane  spirit  is  strong 
in  clergy  and  press. 

j.  Mormons,  or  "The  Church  of  Jesus  Christ  of 
Latter  Day  Saints,"  founded  by  Joseph  Smith,  Jr.  (b. 
in  Vermont),  uneducated,  superstitious;  assisted  by 
Sidney  Rigdon,  a  Baptist  preacher;  Smith  claimed 
to  have  found,  by  a  vision,  gold  plates  engraved  with 
reformed  Egyptian  characters  which  he  translated  by 
looking  through  a  crystal;  this  "Book  of  Mormon" 
published  1^30;  church  founded  April  6,  1830,  in  On- 
tario County,  N.  Y. ;  immersion  of  believer  for  remis- 
sion of  sins ;  moved  to  Kirtland,  O.,  183 1 ;  built  temple, 
organized  hierarchy  (twelve  apostles,  seventy  elders), 
introduced  community  of  goods,  polygamy;  mission 
to  England  1837;  financial  disaster  drove  them  to 
Jackson  County,  Mo.,  1837;  converts  poured  in,  fric- 
tion developed  almost  into  civil  war;  troops  called  in; 
moved  to  Nauvoo,  111.,  1839;  friction  renewed;  1843 
plurality  of  wives  and  eternity  of  marriage  revealed 
to  Smith;  Smith  murdered  in  jail  at  Carthage,  111., 
1844;  Mormons  began  to  remove  to  Utah  1845,  ^^" 
tending  to  build  independent  State;  murder  of  other 
settlers  and  travelers;  friction  with  U.  S.  Government; 
suspension  of  polygamy  1890;  Mormonism  is  a  very 
debased  form  of  Christianity,  the  church  a  vast  politi- 
cal, social  and  economic  machine ;  chiefly  in  Utah,  but 
also  in  other  western  states  and  in  Mexico.  Now 
number  c.  half  a  million  of  population. 

k.  Jews  now  form  an  independent  and  important 
element  in  the  financial,  commercial,  political,  religious 


332  A  GUIDE  TO  THE  STUDY 

and  moral  life  of  many  communities;  large  immigra- 
tion from  Russia. 

1.  Christian  Science,  founded  1866,  by  Mrs.  Mary 
Baker  G.  Eddy,  who  published  ^'Science  and  Health 
with  Key  to  the  Scriptures"  in  1875.  It  is  a  denial 
of  the  reality  of  matter,  suffering  and  evil  on  a  pan- 
theistic basis  in  the  interest  of  divine,  that  is  non- 
medical, healing;  it  may  be  regarded  as  a  philosophy, 
a  religion  or  a  system  of  therapeutics;  it  abandons  all 
distinctive  Christian  beliefs,  all  rational  interpretation 
of  Scripture,  all  ecclesiastical  organization  and  prac- 
tices, uses  laymen  and  women;  astounding  growth, 
especially  among  the  cultured.  First  church  organized 
in  Boston  1879. 

IV.     Christianity  in  South  Africa,  Australia, 
New  Zealand 

Is  predominantly  English  and  Protestant,  manifest- 
ing the  same  divisions  and  variety  seen  in  the  mother 
country  and  United  States;  Episcopalians,  Baptists, 
Methodists,  Presbyterians  are  the  predominant  denom- 
inations. 

In  all  these  countries  there  is  complete  religious  free- 
dom, of  course;  vigorous  missionary  effort  on  behalf 
of  natives  and  colonists ;  the  best  type  of  Christianity. 
Much  may  be  expected  from  these  new  lands  in 
future. 

V.    Christianity  in  the  Orient 

Within  the  last  period  Christianity  has  entered  on 
evangelization  of  the  Orient.  Roman  Catholics  had 
worked  in  preceding  period  in  India,  China  and  Japan ; 


OF  CHURCH  HISTORY  333 

in  this  period  all  great  Protestant  denominations  enter 
same  task  beginning  with  Wm.  Carey  1792.  At  home 
masses  of  Christians  are  organized  into  societies  for 
dissemination  of  information,  stimulation  of  interest, 
collection  of  funds,  selection  and  direction  of  mission- 
aries ;  equipped  with  Bible  translations,  missionary  lit- 
erature and  song,  contributing  vast  sums  of  money. 
The  fields  are  equipped  with  churches,  schools,  printing 
presses,  hospitals,  foreign  and  native  workers;  a 
knowledge  of  peoples,  religions,  social  and  sanitary 
conditions  has  been  accumulated. 

The  century  of  effort  has  gathered  thousands  of 
converts,  awakened,  stimulated  and  unified  Christians 
at  home,  and  revolutionized  Japan  and  China.  Most 
of  the  world's  unorganized  population  has  been  con- 
verted in  the  course  of  the  Christian  centuries.  Chris- 
tianity now  stands  face  to  face  with  the  great  organ- 
ized and  cultured  religions,  Judaism,  Mohammedan- 
ism, Buddhism,  Brahmanism,  Confucianism.  It  was 
never  so  well  prepared  to  undertake  these  mightier 
tasks. 


APPENDIX 


335 


APPENDIX 

Bishops  of  Rome,  later  called  Popes,  as  given  by 
Catholics.  Peter  was  never  Bishop  anywhere;  first 
few  names  following  his  wholly  imcertain,  as  well  as 
dates  of  many  others. 


1.  St.  Peter,  42H57  (?). 

2.  St.  Linus,  67-79  (?). 

3.  St.  Anacletus  I,  79-90  (?). 

4.  St.  Clement  I,  90-99  (?). 

5.  St.  Evaristus,  99-107  (?). 

6.  St.  Alexander  I,  107-116  (?), 

7.  St.  Sixtus  I,  116-125  (?). 

8.  St.  Telesphorus,  125-136  (?). 

9.  St.  Hyginus,  136-140  (?). 

10.  St.  Pius,  140-154  (?)• 

11.  St.  Anicetus,  154-165  (?). 

12.  St.  Soter,  165-174. 

13.  St.  Eleutherius,  174-189. 

14.  St.  Victor,  189-98. 

15.  St.  Zephyrinus,  198-217. 

16.  St.  Calistus  I,  217-222. 

17.  St.  Urban  I,  222-30. 

18.  St.  Pontian,  230-35. 

19.  St.  Anthems,  235-36. 

20.  St.  Fabian,  236-50. 
2i.*St.  Cornelius,  251-53. 

■^Novatian,  251-58  (?). 

22.  St.  Lucius  I,  253-54. 
23.*St.  Stephen  I,  254-57. 
24.*St.  Sixtus  II,  257-58. 

25.  St.  Dionysius,  259-68. 

26.  St.  Felix  I,  269-74. 

27.  St.  Eutychian,  275-83. 

28.  St.  Caius,  293-96. 

29.  St.  Marcellinus,  296-304. 

30.  St.  Marcellus,  308-309. 

31.  St.  Eusebius,  310. 

32.  St.  Melchiades,  311-14. 

33.  St.  Sylvester  I,  314-35. 

34.  St.  Marcus,  336. 

35.  St.  Julius,  337-52. 

36.  Liberius,  352-366. 
■tFelix  II,  355-65. 

37.*St.  Damasus  I,  366-84. 

38.  St.  Siricius,  384-98. 

39.  St.  Anastasius  I,  398-401. 

40.  St.  Innocent  I,  402-17. 

41.  St.  Zosimus,  417-18. 

42.  St.  Boniface  I,  418-22. 

43.  St.  Celestine  I,  422-32. 

44.  St.  Sixtus  III,  432-40. 
45.*St.  Leo  I  (the  Great),  440-461. 

46.  St.  Hilarus,  461-68. 

47.  St.  Simplicius,  468-83. 

48.  St.  Felix  III.  483-92. 

49.  St.  Gelasius  I,  492-96. 

50.  St.  Anastasius  II,  496-98. 

51.  St.  Symmachus,  498-514. 
S2.*St.  Hormisdas,  514-23. 
S3.  St.  John  I,  523-26. 


54.  St.  Felix  IV,  526-30. 

55.  St.  Boniface  II,  530-32. 

56.  St.  John  II,  533-35. 

57.  St.  Agapetus  I,  535-36. 

58.  St.  SUverius,  536-38  (?). 

59.  Vigilius,  538  (?)-55. 

60.  Pelagius  I,  556-61. 

61.  John  III,  561-74. 

62.  Benedict  I,  575-79. 

63.  Pelagius  II,  579-90. 

64.*St.  Gregory  I  (the  Great), 590-604. 

65.  Sabinianus,  604-06. 

66.  Boniface  III,  607. 

67.  St.  Boniface  IV,  607-15. 

68.  St.  Deusdedit,  615-18. 

69.  Boniface  V,  619-25. 

70.  Honorius  I,  625-38. 

71.  Severinus,  638-40. 

72.  John  IV,  640-42. 

73.  Theodore  I,  642-49. 
74.*St.  Martin  I,  649-55. 

75.  St.  Eugene  I,  654-7. 

76.  St.  Vitalian,  657-72. 

77.  Adeodatus,  672-76. 

78.  Bonus  I,  676-78. 

79.  St.  Agatho,  678-81. 

80.  St.  Leo  II.  682-83. 

81.  St.  Benedict  II,  684. 

82.  John  V,  685-86. 

83.  Conon,  686-7. 

84.  St.  Sergius  I,  687-701. 

85.  John  VI,  701-05. 

86.  John  VII,  705-07. 

87.  Sisinnius,  708. 

88.  Constantine,  708-15. 
89.*St.  Gregory  II,  715-31. 
90.*St.  Gregory  III,  731-41. 
9i.*St.  Zachary,  741-52. 

Stephen  II  (died  before  consecra- 
tion) . 
92.*Stephen  III,  752-57. 

93.  St.  Paul  I,  757-^7. 

94.  Stephen  IV,  768-72. 
95.*Hadrian  I,  772-95. 
96.*St.  Leo  III.  795-816. 

97.  Stephen  V.  816-17. 

98.  St.  Paschal  I,  817-24. 

99.  Eugene  II,  824-27. 
100.  Valentine,  827. 
loi.  Gregory  IV,  827-44. 

102.  Sergius  II,  844-47. 

103.  St.  Leo  IV,  847-55. 
(Popess  Joana-fraud.) 

104.  Benedict  III,  855-8. 

i05.*St.  Nicholas  I  (the  Great), 858-867. 


*Indicates  important  Popes.     fAntipopes  in  italics. 

337 


338 


APPENDIX 


io6.  St.  Hadrian  II,  867-72. 

107.  John  VIII,  872-82. 

108.  Marinus  I,  882-4. 

109.  Hadrian  III,  884-5. 
no.  Stephen  VI,  885-91. 

111.  Formosus,  896. 

112.  Boniface  VI,  896. 

113.  Stephen  VII,  896-7. 

114.  Romanus,  897. 

115.  Theodore  II,  897. 

116.  John  IX,  898-900. 

117.  Benedict  IV,  900-03. 

118.  Leo  V,  903. 

119.  Christopher,  903-04. 

120.  Sergius  III,  904-11. 

121.  Anastasius  III,  911-13. 

122.  Lando,  913-14. 

123.  John  X,  914-28. 

124.  Leo  VI,  928. 

125.  Stephen  VIII,  928-31. 

126.  John  XI,  931-6. 

127.  Leo  VI,  936-9. 

128.  Stephen  IX,  939-42. 

129.  Marinus  II,  942-6. 

130.  Agapetus  II,  946-5S. 

131.  John  XII.  955-64. 

132.  Leo  VIII,  963-64. 

133.  Benedict  V,  964. 

134.  John  XIII,  965-72. 

135.  Benedict  VI,  973-4. 
■\Boniface  VII,  974. 

136.  Benedict  VII,  974-83. 

137.  John  XIV,  983-4. 

138.  Boniface  VII,  984-85. 

139.  John  XV,  985-96. 

140.  Gregory  V,  996-9  (German), 
t  {John  XVI,  997-98). 

i4i.*Sylvester  II,  999-1003  (French). 

142.  John  XVII,  1003. 

143.  John  XVIII,  1003-9. 

144.  Sergius  IV,  1009-12. 

145.  Benedict  VIII,  1012-24. 

146.  John  XIX,  1024-32. 

147.  Benedict  IX,  1032-45. 
^Sylvester  III,  1045. 

148.  Gregory  VI,  1045-46. 

149.  Clement  II,  1046-7  (German). 
^Benedict  IX,  1047-48. 

150.  Damascus,    1048    (23   days,   Ger- 

man). 
i5i.*St.  Leo  IX,  1049-54  (German). 
iS2.*Victor  II,  I05S-7  (German). 

153.  Stephen  X,  1057-8  (German). 

154.  Benedict  X,  1058-59. 
i55.*Nicholas  II,  1059-61  (German). 
l56.*Alexander  II,  1061-73. 

■\Honorius  II. 
l57.*St.  Gregory  VII,  1073-85. 
158.  Victor  III,  1087. 
l59-*Urban  II,  1088-99. 
l6o.*Paschal  II,  1099-1118. 

161.  Gelasius  II,  11 18-19. 

162.  Calixtus  II,  1 119-24. 

163.  Honorius  II,  1124-30. 

164.  Innocent  II,  1130-43. 

165.  Celestine  II,  1143-44. 

166.  Lucius  II,  1 144-5. 

167.  *St.  Eugenius  III,  1145-53. 

168.  Anastasius  IV,  11 53-4. 


i69.*Hadrian    IV,    IIS4-S9    (English- 
man) 
i70.*Alexander  III,  1159-81. 

171.  Lucius  III,  1181-85. 

172.  Urban  III,  1185-7. 

173.  Gregory  VIII,  1187. 

174.  Clement  III,  1 187-91. 
17s.  Celestine  III,  1191-98. 
i76.*Innocent  III,  1198-1216. 
177.  Honorius  III,  1216-27. 
i78.*Gregory  IX,  1227-41. 

179.  Celestine  IV,  1241  (17  days)." 

180.  Innocent  IV,  1243-54. 

181.  Alexander  IV,  1254-61. 

182.  Urban  IV,  1261-64. 

183.  Clement  IV,  1265-68. 

184.  St.  Gregory  X,  1271-6. 

185.  Innocent  V,  1276  (Frenchman). 

186.  Hadrian  V,  1276  (38  days). 

187.  John  XXI,  1276-7  (Portuguese). 

188.  Nicholas  III,  1277-80. 

189.  Martin  IV,  1281-5  (Frenchman). 

190.  Honorius  IV,  1285-7. 

191.  Nicholas  IV,  1288-92. 

192.  St.    Celestine   V,    1294    (resigned 

voluntarily). 

193.  Boniface  VIII,  1294-1303. 

194.  Benedict  XI,  1303-4. 
Babylonian      Captivity      at      Avignon 

130S-78. 

Frenchmen. 

195.  Clement  V,  1305-14. 

196.  John  XXII,  1316-34. 

197.  Benedict  XII,  1334-42. 

198.  Clement  VI,  1342-52. 

199.  Innocent  VI,  1352-62. 

200.  Urban  V,  1362-70. 

201.  Gregory  XI,  1370-78. 

GREAT  SCHISM  1378-1417 
At  Rome. 

202.  Urban  VI,  1378-89. 

203.  Boniface  IX,  1389-1404. 

204.  Innocent  VII,  1404-06. 

205.  Gregory  XII,  1406-1415. 

206.  Alexander  V,  1409-10. 

207.  John  XXIII,  1410-15. 
At  Avignon. 

^Clement  VII.  1394. 
^Benedict  XIII,  1409-1417. 
2o8.*Martin  V,  1417-31. 

209.  Eugene  IV,  1431-47. 

■f Felix  F,i439-49,thelast  Antipope. 

210.  Nicholas  V,  1448-55. 

211.  Calixtus  lit,  1455-8  (Spaniard). 

212.  Pius  II,  1458-64, 

213.  Paul  II,  1464-71. 

214.  Sixtus  IV,  1471-84. 

215.  Innocent  VIII,  1484-92. 

216.  Alexander  VI,   1492-1503   (Span- 

iard). 

217.  Pius  III,  1503. 

218.  Julius  II,  1503-13. 
2i9.*Leo  X,  1 5 13-2 1. 

220.  Hadrian  VI,  1522-3  (Dutchman). 

221.  Clement  VII,  1523-34. 

222.  Paul  III,  1534-49. 

223.  Julius  III,  1550-5. 


APPENDIX 


339 


224.  Marcellus  II,  iSSS  (21  days). 

225.  Paul  IV,  1555-9. 

226.  Pius  IV,  1559-65. 

227.  St.  Pius  V,  1566-72. 
228.*Gregory  XIII,  1572-85. 

229.  Sixtus  V,  1585-90. 

230.  Urban  VII,  1590  (13  days). 

231.  Gregory  XIV,  1590-91   (10  mos.). 

232.  Innocent  IX,  1591  (2  months). 

233.  Clement  VIII,  1592-1605. 

234.  Leo  XI,  1605  (21  days). 

235.  Paul  V,  1605-21. 
236.*Gregory  XV,  1621-23. 

237.  Urban  VIII,  1623-44. 

238.  Innocent  X,  1644-55. 

239.  Alexander  VII,  1655-67. 

240.  Clement  IX,  1667-69. 

241.  Clement  X,  1670-6. 

242.  Innocent  XI,  1676-89. 

243.  Alexander  VIII,  1689-91. 

244.  Innocent  XII,  1691-1700. 
245.*Clement  XI,  1700-1721. 

246.  Innocent  XIII,  1721-24. 

247.  Benedict  XIII,  1724-30. 

248.  Clement  XII,  1730-40. 
249.*Benedict  XIV,  1740-58. 

250.  Clement  XIII,  1758-69. 

251.  Clement  XIV,  1769-74. 
252.*Pius  VI,  1775-99. 
253.*Pius  VII,  1800-23, 

254.  Leo  XII,  1823-29. 

255.  Pius  VIII,  1829-30. 

256.  Gregory  XVI,  1831-46. 
257.*Pius  IX.  1846-78. 

258.  Leo  XIII,  1878-1903. 

259.  Pius  X,  1903-1914. 

260.  Benedict  XV,  1914-. 

ECUMENICAL  COUNCILS. 
Acknowledged    by    both    Roman    and 
Greek  Catholic  Churches. 

1.  Nicea,  325. 

2.  Constantinople,  381. 

3.  Ephesus,  431. 

4.  Chalcedon,  451. 

5.  II.  Constantinople,  553. 

6.  III.  Constantinople,  680. 

7.  II.  Nicea,  787. 
Acknowledged     by     Roman     Catholic 

Church  only. 

8.  IV.  Constantinople,  869. 

9.  I.  Lateran,  1123. 

10.  II.  Lateran,  1139. 

11.  III.  Lateran,  1179. 

12.  IV.  Lateran,  1215. 

13.  I.  Lyons,  1245. 

14.  II.  Lyons,  1274. 

15.  Vienna,  1311-13. 
Pisa  (?),  1409. 

16.  Constance,  1414-18. 

17.  Florence,  1439. 

18.  V.  Lateran,  1512-17. 

19.  Trent,  1545-63. 

20.  Vatican,  1869-70. 

OTHER  IMPORTANT  COUNCILS. 

Elvira,  305. 
Aries,  314. 
Ancyra,  314. 


Sardica,  343. 
Constantinople,  692. 
Basel,  143 1. 

EMPERORS  OF  THE  ROMAN 
EMPIRE. 

*Augustus,  31  B.  C.  to  14  A.  D. 

Tiberias,  14-37. 

Caligula,  37-41. 

Claudius,  41-54. 
*Nero,  54-68. 

Galba,  68-9. 

Otho,  69. 

Vitelius,  69. 
Flavian  Emperors. 
*Vespasian,  69-79. 
*Titus,  79-81. 
*Domitian,  81-96. 
Five  Good  Emperors. 

Nerva,  96-8. 
*Trajan,  98-117. 
*Hadrian,  117-38. 
*Antoninus  Pius,  138-61. 
*Marcus  Aurelius,  161-80. 

Commodus,  180-92. 

Pertinax,  193. 
*Septimius  Severus,  193-2 1 1. 

Caracalla,  211-17. 

Macrinus,  217-8. 

Heliogabalus,  218-22. 
♦Alexander  Severus,  222-35. 

Maximinus  Thrax,  235-8. 

Gordian    I    l    ,,-_o 

Gordian  II   f   ^^^  8. 

Gordian  III,  238-44. 

Philip  the  Arabian,  244-9. 
*Decius,  249-51. 

Gallus,  251-3. 

(Valusian.) 

Valerian,  253-60. 

Gallienus,  260-8. 

Claudius  II,  268-70. 
*Aurelian,  270-5. 

Tacitus,  275-6. 

Probus,  276-82. 

Canis,  282-4. 
*Diocletian,  284-305. 

EMPIRE  DIYIDED  286-323. 

Maximian  Co-Emp.,  286-305. 
*Constantius  Chlorus,  305-6. 
*Constantine  I,  the  Great,  306-37. 

Maxentius,  306-12. 

Galerius,  305-11. 
♦Licinius,  306-23. 

Constantine  Sole  Ruler  323-37. 
Empire  Divided  Among  His  Sons. 

Constantine  II,  337-40. 

Constans,  337-50. 
*Constantius,  337-61. 

EMPIRE  REUNITED,  350. 

♦Julian,  the  Apostate,  361-3. 
Jovian,  363-4. 

EMPIRE  AGAIN  DIVIDED,  364-94. 
West. 
Valentinian  I,  364-75. 


340 


APPENDIX 


Gratian.  375-83- 

Clemens  Maximus,  383-8. 

Valentinian  II,  383-392. 

Argobast,  382-4. 
East. 

Valens,  364-78. 
♦Theodosius,  379-02. 

EMPIRE  REUNITED,  394 

Theodosius  alone,  394-5- 
EMPIRE  AGAIN  DIVIDED,  395-476 
West. 
Honorius,  395-423- 
V^alentinian  III,  425-55- 
Rome  sacked,  410,  by  W.  Goths  and 

455  by  Vandals. 
Confusion  to  476  when  Romulus  Au- 

gustulus  was  deposed  by  Odoacer, 

who  rules  as  patrician. 

East. 

Arcadius,  395-408. 

Theodosius  II,  408-50. 

Marcian,  450-7. 

Leo  I,  457-74. 

Zeno,  474-91- 
EMPIRE     HENCEFORTH     CALLED 
EAST   ROMAN,   BYZANTINE   OR 
GREEK  EMPIRE. 

Anastasius  I,  491-518. 

Justin  I.  518-27. 
♦Justinian  I,  527-65. 

Justin  II.  565-78. 

Tiberius  II.  578-82. 

Maurice.  582-602. 

Phocas.  602-610. 
Heraclian  Dynasty,  6io-7i7. 
♦Heraclius  I,  610-41. 

Constantine  III,  641. 

Heracleonas,  641-2. 

Constans  II.  642-68. 

Constantine  IV  (Pogonatus),  668-85. 

Justinian  II,  685-95. 

Leontius,  695-8. 

Tiberius  III,  698-705. 

Justinian  II.  again  Emperor,  705-11. 

Philippicus  Bardanes,  711-13. 

Anastasius  II,  713-16. 

Theodosius  III,  716-7. 
Syrian  (Isaurian)  Dynasty,  717-820. 
*Leo  III  (the  Isaurian),  717-41. 

Constantine  V  (Copronymus),  741-75- 

Leo  IV,  775-80. 

Constantine  VI,   780-97. 
♦Empress  Irene,  797-802. 

Nicephorus  I,  802-11. 

Stauracius,  811. 

Michael  I,  811-13. 

Leo  V,  the  Armenian,  813-20. 
Amorian  Dynasty,  820-67. 

Michael  II    (Stammerer),  820-29. 

Theophilus,  829-42. 

Michael  III  (the  Drunkard),  842-67. 
Basilian   or    Armenian     (Macedonian) 

Dynasty,  867-1057. 
♦Basil I  (the  Macedonian),  867-86. 


Leo  VI  (the    Wise).  886-012. 
Constantine   VII,     Porphyrogenitus — 

912-59. 
(Alexander,  associate  emperor, 91 2-13. 
Romanus  I,  together   with    his   three 

sons,  associate  emperors,  919-44.) 
Romanus  II,  959-63- 
♦Basil  II  (Bulgaroctonus) — 963-1025. 
(Nicephorus  II  and   Phocas,  associate 

emperors,  963-9. 
John  I  (Zimisces),   associate  emperor, 

969-76). 
Constantine  VIII,  1025-8. 
Romanus  III  (Argyrus),  1028-34. 
Michael      IV     (the       Paphlagonian) , 

1034-41- 
Michael  V,  1041-2. 
Constantine  IX  (Monomachus),  1042- 

55- 
Theodora,  1054-56. 
Michael  VI  (Stratioticus),  1056-57. 
Isaac  I  (Comnenus),  1057-9. 
Constantine  X  (Ducas),  1059-67. 
Eudocia  (in  name  of  her  sons.  Michael 

VII,   Andronicus   and   Constantine, 

and  her  second  husband,  Romanus 

IV,  1067-71, 
Michael  VII  (see  above),  1071-8. 
Nicephorus  III  (Botaniates),  1078-81. 
Comnenian  Dynasty,  1081-1185. 
Alexius  (Comnenus),  1081-1118. 
John  II  (Comnenus),  1118-43. 
Manuel  I  (Comnenus),  1143-1180. 
Alexus  II  (Comnenus),  1180-83. 
Andronicus  I  (Comnenus),  1183-85. 
Angelian  Dynasty,  1 185-1204. 
Isaac  II  (Angelus),  1185-95. 
Alexius  III  (Angelus),  1195-1203. 
Isaac  II  (Restored),  1203. 
Alexius  IV  (Restored),  1204. 
Alexius  V  (Ducas),  1204. 
Latin  Emperors,  1204-1261. 
Baldwin  I,  1204-6. 
Henry  of  Flanders,  1206-16. 
Peter  of  Courtenay,  12 16-19. 
Yolande,  12 19-21. 
Robert,  1221-8. 
John  of  Brienne,  1229-37. 
Baldwin  II,  1237-61. 

Nicean  Emperors,  1206-60. 

Theodore  I  (Lascaris),  1206-22. 
John  III  (Ducas),  1222-54. 
Theodore  II  (Ducas),  1254-59. 
John  IV  (Ducas),  1260. 

Paleologi,  1261-1453. 

Michael  VIII  (Paleologus),  1261-82. 
Andronicus     II     (Paleologus),    1282- 

1328. 
Andronicus  III  (Paleologus) — 1328-41. 
John  V  (Paleologus),  1 341-91. 
(John  VI.  Co-emperor,  1341-54.) 
Manuel  II  (Paleologus),  1391-1425. 
(John  VII,  Co-emperor,  1398-1402.) 
John  VIII,  1425-48. 
Constantine  XI,  1448-53. 
Fall    of    Constantinople    and    end   of 

Empire,  1453. 


APPENDIX 


341 


PRANKISH  EMPIRE. 
Merovingians,  428-752. 

Franks  overran  Gaul,  400  onward. 

Clodion,  428. 

Merovic,  448-56  (?). 

Childeric  I.  481. 

Clovis,  48 1 -51 1. 

Kingdom  divided  among  his  four  sons, 
Theodoric  at  Metz,  Chlodomer  at 
Orleans,  Childebert,  at  Paris  and 
Clotaire  at  Soissons. 

Clotaire  sole  ruler  558-61. 

Divided  among  his  sons  into  four, 
later  (567)  three  parts,  Austrasia, 
Neustria,  and  Burgundy.  Fright- 
ful anarchy  and  civil  wars  till  613 
when  it  was  reunited  under  Clotaire 
II,  613-28. 

Dagobert,  628-38,  Kings  growing 
weaker;  three  parts  ruled  by  mayors 
of  the  palace;  687  Pepin  of  Heristal, 
mayor  of  Austrasia,  overthrew  other 
two  mayors  (Testry)  and  ruled  over 
whole.  His  grandson,  Pepin,  de- 
posed Childeric  III  742-52  and  be- 
came king. 
Carlovingian  Dynasty,  752-911. 

Pepin,  the  Short,  752H58. 

Carloman,  768-71. 

Charlemagne,  768-71,  alone  to  800. 

Revival  of  West    Roman    Empire  by 
Charlemagne,  called  German  Roman 
Empire,  Holy  Roman  Empire  of  the 
German  Nation. 
Charlemagne  Emperor,  800-14. 
Louis,  the  Pious,  814-40. 
Empire  divided   into  three  parts  by 

treaty  of  Verdun,  843. 
Eastern  ruled  by  Louis,  the  German, 

840-76. 
Central  portion  with  imperial  title  by 

Lothair,  840-55. 
Western  portion  by  Charles  the  Bald, 

840-77. 
Middle  portion  divided  between  East- 
em  and  Western  portions,  870,  the 
imperial      title      going     with     the 
Eastern  or  German  division. 
Charles  the  Fat,  876-87. 
Amulf,  887-99. 
Louis,  the  Child,  899-911. 
Conrad  I,  of  Franconia,  911-18, 
Saxon  House,  918-1024. 
Henry  I,  the  Fowler,  918-36. 
Otto  I,  the  Great,  936-73- 
Holy  Roman  Empire  of  the  German 
Nation,  established  962. 
Otto  II,  973-83. 
Otto  III,  983-1002. 
Henry  II,  the  Saint,  1002-24. 
House  of  Franconia,  1024-1125. 
Conrad  II,  1024-39. 
Henry  III,  1039-56. 
Henry  IV,  1056-1106. 
Henry  V,  1106-25. 
Lothair  of  Saxony,  1125-37. 


House  of  the  Hohenstaufen,  1 138-1254. 

Conrad  III,  1138-52, 

Frederick  I,  Barbarossa,  1152-90. 

Henry  VI,  1 190-7. 

Philip  of  Swabia,  1 198-1208. 

Otto  IV,  of  Brunswick,  1198-1215. 

Frederick  II,  1212  (i2i5)-i2S0. 

Conjad  IV,  1250-4. 

William  of  Holland.  1247-56. 

Disorder,    rival     claimants,    interreg- 
num, 1256-73. 
Kings    and    Emperors    from    various 
houses,  1273-1438. 

Rudolph  I,  of  Hapsburg,  1273-91. 

Adolph  of  Nassau,  1292-8. 

Albert  I,  of  Austria,  1298-1308. 

Henry  VII,  of  Luxemburg,  1308-13. 

Frederick  of  Austria,  1314-30. 

Louis  of  Bavaria,  1314-47. 

Charles  IV,  of  Luxemburg-Bohemia, 
1347-78. 

Wenceslas  (his  son),  1378-1400. 

Ruprecht  of  the  Palatinate,  1400-10. 

Sigismimd  (brother  of  Wenceslas), 
1410-37. 

House  of  Hapsburg,  or  Austria,  1438-. 

Albert  II,  1438-9. 

Frederick  III,  1440-93. 

Maximilian  I,  1493-15 IQ. 

Charles  V,  1519-56. 

Ferdinand  I,  1556-64. 

Maximilian  II,  1564-76. 

Rudolph  II,  1576-1612. 

Matthias,  1612-19. 

Ferdinand  II,  1619-37. 

Ferdinand  III,  1637-57. 

Leopold  I  (son  of  Ferdinand  III), 
1658-1705. 

Joseph  I  (son  of  Leopold  I),  1705-11. 

Charles  VI,  1711-40. 

Maria  Theresa,  1740-80. 

Joseph  II,  1765  (i78o)-90. 

Leopold  II,  1790-2. 

Francis  II,  1 792-1 806. 

End  of  Holy  Roman  Empire,  suc- 
ceeded by  Austrian  Empire,  of 
which  Francis  II  becomes  Francis  I, 
1806-35. 

Ferdinand  I,  1835-48. 

Francis  Joseph,  1848-. 

FRENCH  KINGS. 

France  under  the  Romans  from  time 
of  Caesar  to  5th  century  A.  D. 
Then  subdued  by  the  Franks,  under 
Merovingian  kings,  496-752;  then 
under  Carlovingians  to  division  of 
Empire  by  Treaty  of  Verdun,  843; 
then  as  separate  kingdom  imder 
Carlovhigians,  843-987. 

Charles  the  Bald,  840-77. 

Louis  II  (the  Stammerer),  877-9. 

Louis  III,  877-82. 

Carloman,  877-84. 

Charles  II  (the  Fat),  884-deposed 
887. 

Eudes.  887-98. 

Charles  III  (the  Simple),  898-922. 


342 


APPENDIX 


Robert,  922-3. 

Raous,  923-36. 

Louis  IV,  d'Outre-Mer,  936-54- 

Lothaire,  954-86. 

Loiiis  V,  986-7. 
Capetian  Line,  987-1328. 

Hugh  Capet,  987-96. 

Robert  II  (the  Saint),  996-1031. 

Henry  I,  1031-60. 

Philip  I.  1060-1108. 

Louis  VI  (the  Fat),  1108-37. 

Louis  VII  (the  Lion),  1137-80. 

Philip  II.  Augustus,  1180-1223. 

Louis  VIII.  1223-6. 

Louis  IX  (Saint  Louis),  1226-70, 

Philip  III,  1270-85. 

Philip  IV  (the  Fair),  1285-1314- 

Louis  X,  1314-16. 

Philip  V  (the  Long),  1316-22. 

Charles  IV  (the  Fair),  1322-8. 
House  of  Valois,  1328-1498. 

Philip  VI,  1328-50. 

John  II  (the  Good),  1350-64. 

Charles  V  (the  Wise),  1364-80. 

Charles  VI,  1380-1422. 

Charles  VII  (the  Victorious),  1422-61. 

Louis  XI,  1461-83. 

Charles  VIII,  1483-98. 
Houses   of   Orleans   and   Angouleme, 
1498-1589. 

Louis  XII,  1498-1515. 

Francis  I,  1515-47. 

Henry  II,  1547-59- 

Francis  II,  i559-6o. 

Charles  IX,  1560-74. 

Henry  III.  1574-89. 
House  of  Bourbon,  1589-1793. 

Henry  IV,  1589-1610. 

Louis  XIII,  1610-43. 

Louis  XIV,  1643-171S. 

Louis  XV,  1715-74- 

Louis  XVI,  1774-93. 

Republic,  1793-1804. 

(Revolution  and   Directory  to   I799; 

Consulate  1804.) 
First       Empire       under       Napoleon, 

1804-14. 
Kingdom    restored    by    Congress    of 

Vienna,  18 14. 
Louis  XVIII,  1814-24. 
Charles  X.  1824-30. 
Louis  Philippe,  1830-48. 
Second  Republic,  1848-52. 
Second  Empire  under  Napoleon  III, 

1852-70. 
Third  Republic,  1870  to  Present. 

KINGS  OF  ITALY. 

Italy  under  the  Roman  Emperors  to 
476,  after  which  it  was  not  again 
united  under  one  government  till 
1870.  Under  Odoacer  as  Patrician 
till  overthrown  in  493  by 
The  Ostrogoths,  493-552. 
Theodoric,  493-526. 


Athalaric,  526-34. 

Theodat,  534-6. 

Vitiges,  536-40. 

Hildebald,  540-1. 

Eraric,  541  • 

Totila,  541-52. 

Teias,  552. 
Principal  Lombard  Kings,  568-888. 

Alboin,  568-73. 

Cleph,  573-4. 

Interregnum. 

Utharis,  584-91. 

Agilulph,  591-636. 

Rotharis,  636-62. 

Pertharit,  662-. 

Grimoald,  661-71. 

Pertharit,  Again,  671-712. 

Ausprand,  712, 

Luitprand,  712-44. 

Ratchis,  744-9. 

Astolph,  749-56. 

Didier,  Duke  of  Istria,  756-. 
The  Frankish  Carlovingians,  774-S88. 

Charlemagne,  774-814. 

Louis  the  Pious,  814-40. 

Lothaire,  840-55. 

Louis  II,  855-75. 

Charles  the  Bald,  875-7. 

Carloman  of  Bavaria,  877-80. 

Charles  the  Fat,  880-8. 
Kings  of  the  Feudal  Period,  888-9SI. 

Guy,  Duke  of  Spoleto,  888. 

Berenger,  Duke  of  Frioul,  888-91. 

Lambert,  son  of  Guy,  891-6. 

Arnulf,  king  of  Germany,  896-9. 

Louis,  king  of  Provence,  899-921. 

Rudolph,  king  of  Burgtmdy,  921-6. 

Hugh,  count  of  Aries,  926-47. 

Lothair,  his  son,  947-50. 

Berenger  II,  950-1. 

In  951  Otto  I,  king  of  Germany,  as- 
sumed the  title  king  of  Italy,  and 
this  title  attached  to  the  crown  of 
Germany  until  the  downfall  of  the 
Empire.  The  title  was  revived 
again  when  Victor  Emmanuel,  king 
of  Sardinia,  took  the  title  "King  of 
Italy,"  March  17,  1861. 

KINGS  OF  NAPLES. 
Normans,  1046-1189. 

Robert  Guiscard  arrives  In  Italy  1046, 

and  becomes  duke  in  1057. 
Roger  becomes  duke  1085. 
William  becomes  duke  iiii. 
Roger  I  becomes  count  of  Sicily  1050. 
Roger  II  becomes  count  of  Sicily  iioi. 
Roger  II  becomes  duke  of  Sicily  1127. 
Roger  II  becomes  king  of  the  Sicilies 

1130. 
William  I  becomes  king  of  the  Sicilies 

1154- 
William  II  becomes  king  of  the  Sicilies 

1 166. 
Germans,  1189-1266. 

(Dates  indicate  time  of  accession.) 
Henry  I  (VI,  in  Germany),  1189- 
Frederick  I  (II  in  Germany),  1197. 


APPENDIX 


343 


Conrad,  1250. 
Conradin,  1254. 
Manfred,  1258. 
French  House  of  Anjou,  1266-1435. 

Given  by  the  pope  to  Charles  I,  1266. 

Loses  Sicily  (Sicilian  Vespers),  1282. 

Charles  II,  1285. 

Robert,  1309. 

John  I,  1343. 

Charles  III,  1382. 

Ladislas,  1386. 

John  II,  141 1. 

Naples  passes  under  the  crown  of 
Aragon,  143S;  1458  independent, 
1504  subject  to  Spain;  17 14  passed 
under  Austria;  1738  passed  under 
Spanish  line  of  the  "House  of 
Bourbon,"  but  was  not  connected 
with  the  Spanish  crown.  After 
Napoleonic  wars,  Naples  passed 
under  control  of  Austria  till  i860. 

KINGS  OF  SICILY,  1282-1409. 

(Dates  indicate  time  of  eiccession.) 

Peter  (III  in  Aragon),  1282. 

James,  1285. 

Frederick  I,  1296. 

Peter  II,  1336. 

Louis,  1342. 

Frederick  II,  1355. 

Marie,  1377. 

Martin  I,  1391-1409. 

Martin  II  unites  Sicily  to  Aragon  In 
1409.  By  Treaty  of  Utrecht,  1713. 
concluding  the  wars  of  the  Spanish 
succession,  Sicily  passed  vmder  con- 
trol of  Duke  of  Savoy,  who  was 
compelled,  1718,  to  exchange  it  for 
Sardinia,  and  henceforth  called  him- 
self "King  of  Sardinia."  Sicily 
passed  under  control  of  Austria 
till  i860. 

SPANISH  PENINSULA 

Spain  was  under  the  Romans  from 
197  B.  C.  till  its  invasion  by  Ger- 
mans (Vandals,  Suevi,  Alani),  409 
onward;  W.  Goths  conquer  most  of 
Spain,  526-711,  capital  at  Toledo, 
Moors  (Mohammedans)  ovemui  all 
the  peninsula  except  N.  W.  portion, 
711  onward.  Christians  gradually 
build  up  the  kingdoms  of  Leon, 
Navarre,  Castile,  Aragon  and  Por- 
tugal, which,  by  degrees,  win  back 
the  territory  till  1492,  when  the 
Mohammedan  government  was  com- 
pletely overthrown. 
Navarre. 

Became  kingdom  858,  remained  inde- 
pendent till  1512,  when  it  was  over- 
thrown by  Ferdinand  of  Aragon,  and 
the  larger  part  incorporated  in  Ara- 
gon, the  northern  portion  remaining 
free  under  a  French  count  untU 
finally  incorporated  in  France. 
Aragon. 

Became  independent  kingdom   1035; 


Leon  united  with  Castile  1230; 
Castile  and  Aragon  were  united 
1479,  after  the  marriage  of  Fer- 
dinand, king  of  Aragon,  and  Isabella, 
queen  of  Castile,  in  1469;  the  union 
was  personal  till  1516,  when  they 
were  completely  vmited  into  the 
Elingdom  of  Spain. 
Kings  of  Spain. 

Charles    I    (Emperor    Charles    V    In 
Germany),  15x6-56. 

Philip  n,  1556-98. 

Philip  III,  1598-1621. 

Philip  IV,  1621-65. 

Charles  II,  1665-1700. 
Bourbon  Dynasty. 

Philip  V,  1700-46. 

Ferdmand  VI,  1746-59. 

Charles  III,  1759-88. 

Charles  IV,  1788-abdicated  x8o8. 

After  the  Napoleonic  wars,  Ferdinand 
VII,  1814-33. 

Isabella  II,  1833-deposed  1869. 

Amadeus  I  (son  of  Victor  Emanuel), 
1870-abdicated  1873. 

Republic,  1873-5- 

Alfonso  XII (  son  of  Isabella),  1875-85. 

His  widow,  Christina  Regent,   1885- 
1902. 

Alfonso  XIII,  1902-. 

PORTUGAL. 

The  county  of  Portugal  became  king- 
dom in  I 139. 

Alfonso  I,  1 1 12-85. 

Sancho  I.  1185-1211. 

Alfonso  II,  1211-23. 

Sancho  II,  1223-48. 

Alfonso  III,  1248-79. 

Dionysius  III,  1279-1325. 

Alfonso  IV,  1325-57. 

Peter  I,  1357-67. 

Ferdinand,  1367-85. 

John  I,  1385-1433. 

Edward,  1433-38. 

Alfonso  V,  1438-81. 

John  II,  1481-95. 

Emanuel  the  Great,  1495-IS21. 

John  III,  1521-57- 

Sebastian,  1557-78. 

Henry,  1578-80. 

Portugal   a   Spanish   province,    1581- 
1640. 
House  of  Braganza,  1640  to  1911. 

John  IV,  1640-56. 

Alfonso  VI,  1656-67. 

Peter  II, 1667-1706. 

John  V,  1706-50. 

Joseph,  1750-77- 

Maria  (and  Peter  III  to  1786),  1777- 
1816. 

Prince  John,  regent   since    1789,   be- 
came John  VI,  1816-26. 

Maria,  1826-53. 

Peter  V.  1853-61. 

Louis,  1861-89. 

Charles  I,  1889-assassinated  1908. 

Republic  since  191 1. 


344 


APPENDIX 


THE  HOHENZOLLERN  m 
PRUSSIA. 
Electors  of  Brandenburg. 
Frederick  I,  1415-40. 
Frederick  II  (the  Iron  Duke),  1440-70. 
Albert  Achilles,  1470-86. 
John,  Cicero,  1486-99. 
Joachim  I,  I499-IS3S. 
Joachim  II,  IS3S-7I. 
John  George,  1571-98. 
Joachim  Frederick,  1598-1608. 
John  Sigismund,  1608-19. 
George  William  ,161 9-40 . 
Frederick  William,  the  Great  Elector, 

1640-88. 
Frederick    III,    William,    1688-1713. 

takes  the  title  "Frederick  William  I, 

king  of  Prussia,"  1701. 
Frederick  I,  1713-40. 
Frederick  II,  the  Great,  1740-86. 
Frederick  William  II,  1786-97. 
Frederick  William  III,  1797-1840. 
Frederick  William  IV,  1840-61. 
William  I,  1861-88,  became  Emperor 

of  the  newly  formed  Empire,  1871. 
Frederick  III.  1888. 
William  II,  1888  to  present. 

KINGS  OF  ENGLAND. 

England  tmder  Romans  A.  D.  44  to  449. 

Anglo-Saxon  Heptarchy,  with  confu- 
sion  and   various   changes   to   827, 
when    the    Heptarchy    was    united 
tmder  Egbert  of  Wessex. 
Anglo-Saxon  Kings. 

Egbert,  827-36. 

Ethel wulf,  836-57. 

Ethelbald,  857. 

Ethelbert,  857-66. 

Etheb-ed.  866-71. 

Alfred  the  Great,  871-901. 

Edward,  901-925. 

Athelstan,  925-40. 

Edmond,  940-46. 

Edred,  946-55- 

Edwy,  955-8. 

Edgard.  958-7S. 

Edward  II,  the  Martyr,  975-9. 

Ethelred  II,  979-1013. 
Danish  Princes. 

Sweyn,  1013. 

Ethelred  II,  again,  1014-16. 

Edmond  Ironside,  10 16. 

Canute  the  Great,  1016-35. 

Harold  I,  1035-40. 

Hardicanute,  1040-2. 
Anglo-Saxon  Kings. 

Edward  the  Confessor,  1042-66. 

Harold,  son  of  Godwin,  1066. 
Norman  Kings,  1066-1154. 

William  I,  1066-87. 

William  Rufus,  1087-1100. 

Henry  I,  1100-35. 

Stephen  of  Blois,  1 135-54. 
House  of  Anjou,  or  Plantagenets,  1x54- 
1399. 

Henry  II,  1154-89. 


Richard  Coeur  de  Lion,  1189-99. 
John  (Lackland),  1199-1216. 
Henry  III,  1216-72. 
Edward  I,  1272-1307. 
Edward  II,  1307-27. 
Edward  III,  1327-77. 
Richard  II,  1377-99. 

House  of  Lancaster,  1399-1461. 

Henry  IV,  1399-1413. 
Henry  V,  1413-22. 
Henry  VI,  1422-61. 

House  of  York,  1461-85. 

Edward  IV,  1461-83. 
Edward  V,  1483. 
Richard  III,  1483-S. 

House  of  Tudor,  1485-1603. 

Henry  VII,  1485-1509. 
Henry  VIII,  1509-47. 
Edward  VI,  1547-53. 
Mary,  1 553-8. 
Elizabeth,  1558-1603. 

House  of  the  Stewarts,  1603-1714. 
James  I,  1603-25. 
Charles  I,  1625-49. 
Commonwealth,  1649-60, 
Charles  II,  1660-85. 
James  II,  1685-8. 
William  III  and  Mary,  1688-1702. 

(Mary  only  to  1694.) 
Anne,  1702-14. 

House  of  Hanover,  1714  to  Present. 

George  I,  1714-27. 
George  II,  1727-60. 
George  III,  1760-1820. 
George  IV,  1820-30. 
William  IV,  1830-7. 
Victoria,  1837-1900. 
Edward  VII,  5900-10. 
George  V,  1910-. 

KINGS  OF  SCOTLAND. 

Scotland  never  under  the  Roman  Em- 
pire. Tribal  governments  gradually 
transformed  into  petty  kingdoms, 
which  were  slowly  tmited  into  one 
by  war  and  marriage.  This  reached 
some  degree  of  unity  and  power 
by  the  year  1000. 

Malcolm  II,  1005-34. 

Duncan,  d.  1039. 

Macbeth. 

Malcolm  III,  Canmore,  1054-97. 

Edgar,  1097-1107. 

Alexander  I,  1107-24. 

David  I,  1124-53. 

Malcolm  IV,  1153-65. 

William  the  Lion,  1165-1214. 

Alexander  II,  1214-49. 

Alexander  III,  1249-86. 

Marguerite,  1286-90. 

John  Balliol,  1291-deposed  1296. 

Edward  I,  of  England,  acknowledged 
king  of  Scotland  1296. 

William  Wallace. 

Robert  Bruce,  1306-29. 

David  II,  1329-deposed  1332. 


APPENDIX 


345 


Edward  BalHol,  1332-deposed  1342. 

David  II,  restored  1342-70. 
House  of  the  Stuarts,  1371-1603. 

Robert  II,  1370-90. 

Robert  III,  1390-1406. 

James  I,  1406-37. 

James  II,  1437-60. 

James  III,  1460-88. 

James  IV,  1488-1513. 

James  V,  1513-42. 

Mary,  1542-66;  represented  by  regent 
to  1560. 

James  VI,  1566-1603,  when  he  became 
king  of  England  also,  thus  tmiting 
the  two  crowns  and  removing  cap- 
ital to  London.  Scotch  Parliament 
united  with  the  English  1707. 

WALES. 

Was  never  subdued  by  Romans  or 
Anglo-Saxons.  Divided  into  several 
small  states  under  independent 
princes  until  1284,  when  it  was  com- 
pletely subjected  to  England;  in 
1 30 1  the  heir  to  English  throne  was 
given  title,  "Prince  of  Wales,"  and 
in  1536  the  covmtry  was  completely 
incorporated  in  England. 

IRELAND. 

Was  not  under  the  Romans  or  Anglo- 
Saxons.  Many  small,  independent 
princes,  constantly  at  war  with  one 
another  imtU  11 55.  when  it  was 
granted  by  Pope  to  Henry  II,  of 
England,  with  title  "Lord  of  Ire- 
land." Always  rebellious  and  never 
wholly  subdued;  had  its  own  par- 
liament; 1541  Henry  VIII  was 
recognized  as  "King  of  Ireland," 
and  1 80 1  the  Irish  parliament  was 
tmited  with  the  English. 

THE  NETHERLANDS. 

Were  subjected  to  the  Roman  Empire 
from  time  of  Julius  Caesar  onward; 
passed  into  Prankish  Empire,  then 
into  German  Empire,  843  onward; 
during  feudalism  many  semi-inde- 
pendent states  of  various  forms 
were  developed;  the  whole  passed 
under  sway  of  dukes  of  Burgundy 
1369  onward,  and  under  House  of 
Hapsburg  by  marriage  of  Maxi- 
milian of  Austria  and  Mary  of 
Burgundy,  1477;  in  I549  they  were 
attached  by  Charles  V  to  crown 
of  Spain;  Spanish  cruelty  excited 
revolt,  1568;  seven  northern  prov- 
inces unite  1579  (Union  of  Utrecht), 
and  1581  declare  their  independence, 
tmder  leadership  of  William  of 
Orange  (the  Silent),  as  Stadt- 
holder;  Maurice,  1584-1625;  Fred- 
erick Henry,  1625;  after  William  II, 
iStadthpldership  abolished.     Recog- 


nized as  independent  republic  by 
Treaty  of  Westphalia,  1648; 
Stadtholdership  revived  1672,  and 
William  III  made  Stadtholder;  be- 
comes King  of  England  1688-1702; 
down  to  Napoleonic  wars,  some- 
times a  stadtholdership  and  some- 
times pure  republic.  Southern 
provinces  had  been  saved  to  Spain 
in  1 6th  century,  were  transferred 
to  Austria  1 7 13.  and  by  Congress 
of  Vienna,  1815,  were  united  with 
the  northern  provinces  into  the 
Kingdom  of  the  Netherlands,  imder 
WiUiam  I,  1815-40;  William  II, 
1840-9;  William  III,  1849-90;  Wil- 
helmina,  1890-. 

BELGroM. 

Kingdom  of  Belgium  was  formed  oir 
revolted  southern  provinces,  1830; 
Prince  Leopold,  of  Saxe-Coburg, 
was  elected  king  1831-65;  Leopold 
II,  1865-1909;  Albert  I,  1909-. 

RUSSIA. 

Never  under  the  Romans.  Tribal 
government  till  862,  when  Ruric, 
a  Swedish  prince,  laid  foundation 
of  the  Empire,  with  capital  of 
Novgorod,  later  Kiev:  became  Chris- 
tian under  Vladimir  tne  Great  (988) ; 
divided  into  many  principalities 
under  suzerainty  of  Kiev,  Russia 
under  the  Mongols,  1241-1480. 
During  this  period  the  principality 
of  Moscow  rose,  and  its  prince 
became  the  founder  of  the  vmited 
Monarchy,  1480. 

Ivan  III,  the  Great,  1462-1505. 

Ivanovitch,  1505-33. 

Ivan  IV,  1533-84. 

Feodor  I,  1584-98. 

Boris  Godunow,  1598-1605. 

Demetrius,  1605-6. 

Wasilij  Schwiskoi,  1606-10. 

Whadislaw,  1610-12. 
House  of  the  Romanofs,  1613  to  Present 

Michael  F.  Romanov,  1613-45. 

Alexius,  1645-76. 

Feodor  II,  1676-82. 

Interregnum,  1682-9. 

Peter  I,  the  Great,  1689-172S. 

Catharine  I,  1725-7. 

Peter  II,  1727-30. 

Anna,  1730-40. 

Ivan  VI,  1740-1. 

Elizabeth,  1741-62. 

Peter  III,  1762. 

Catharine  II,  1762-96. 

Paul  I,  1 796-1 801. 

Alexander  I,  1801-25. 

Nicholas  I,  1825-55. 

Alexander  II,  1855-81. 

Alexander  III,  1881-94. 

Nicholas  II,  1894-. 


346 


APPENDIX 


CHRISTIAN  YEAR  AND  PRINCIPAL  SAINTS'  DAYS 


The  Christian  Year  is  a  "Chronological  Confession  of  Faith"  intended  to  set 
forth  at  certain  seasons  annually  the  Church's  faith  in  the  Christian  fundamentals. 
It  is  most  fully  developed  and  widely  used  in  the  Greek  and  Roman  Catholic 
Churches,  but  some  of  the  Protestants  (notably  Anglicans  and  Lutherans)  make 
considerable  use  of  the  Church  festivals.  The  two  Catholic  Churches  are,  not 
entirely  agreed  as  to  their  years;  the  following  is  the  Roman  Catholic  arrange- 
ment which  is  followed  by  the  Protestants  so  far  as  they  make  any  use  of  the 
Year.  The  Year  consists  of  three  Cycles  of  festivals  gathering  about  the  Birth 
and  Resurrection  of  Christ  and  the  Gift  of  the  Holy  Spirit  and  many  unconnected 
Saints'  Days  and  festivals.     Some  of  the  days  are  fixed,  some  movable. 

THE  CYCLES 

I.  Incarnation  Cycle — Christmas 

1.  Advent  Sunday — Sunday  nearest  November  30 — beginning  of  Chris- 

tian Year. 

2.  Christmas — festival  of  the  incarnation,  December  asth. 

3.  Innocents'  Day — Murder  of  Children  by  Herod,  December  28th. 

4.  Circumcision  of  Christ,  January  ist. 

5.  Epiphany,  January  6th,  Manifestation  of  Deity  at  worship  of  magi  at 

baptism  and  at  first  miracle. 

6.  Candlemas — purification  of  the  Virgin — February  2d. 
II.  Resurrection  Cycle — Easter 

1.  Three  Sundays  before  Lent — Septuagesima,  Sexagesima,  Quinquages- 

ima. 

2.  Lent,  fast  of  forty  days  (omitting  Sundays)  before  Easter,  beginning 

Ash  Wednesday. 
(Annunciation,  March  2Sth,  really  belongs  to  first  Cycle.) 

3.  Palm  Sunday — Sunday  before  Easter — Triumphal  entry  of  Jesus. 

4.  Maundy  Thursday — acts  of  humility,  for  example,  foot-washing,  etc. 

5.  Good  Friday — day  of  humiliation. 

6.  Easter  Sunday — Resurrection — ist  Sunday  after  first  full  moon  after 

vernal  equinox — Greek  Church  counts  differently. 

7.  Easter  Week. 

III.  Pentecostal  Cycle — Descent  of  Holy  Spirit — Period  of  Gladness 

1.  Rogation  Sunday,  5th  Sunday  after  Easter — following  Monday,  Tues- 

day, and  Wednesday  rogation  days — immediately  preceding  Ascen- 
sion. 

2.  Ascension — Holy  Thursday — 40th  day  after  Easter. 

3.  Pentecost  or  Whitsunday — 7th  Sunday,  soth  day,  after  Easter — descent 

of  Holy  Spirit. 

4.  Corpus  Christi  Day — Thursday  after  Pentecost. 

5.  Trinity  Sunday — ist  Sunday  after  Pentecost. 

SOME  OF  THE  IMPORTANT  SAINTS'  DAYS 
AND  OTHER  MINOR  FESTIVALS 

St.  Andrew's  Day,  November  30th.  St.  Barnabas'  Day,  June  nth. 

St.  Nicholas'  Day,  December  6th.  St.  Anthony's  Day,  June  13th. 

Immaculate  Conception,  December  8th.  Nativity  of  St.  John  the  Baptist,  June 

St.  Thomas'  Day,  December  21st.  24th. 

St.  Stephen's  Day,  December  26th.  St.  Peter's  Day,  June  29th. 

St.  John  the  Evangelist's  Day,  Decem-  St.  Paul's  Day,  June  30th. 

ber  27th.  St.  James'  Day,  July  25th. 

St.  Agnes'  Day,  January  21st.  St.  Laurence's  Day,  August  loth. 

St.  Valentine's  Day,  February  14th.  Assumption  of  Mary,  August  isth. 

St.  David's  Day,  March  ist.  St.  Bartholomew's  Day,  August  24th. 

St.  Patrick's  Day,  March  17th.  Nativity  of  the  Virgin,  September  8th. 

St.  Joseph's  Day,  March  19th.  St.  Matthew's  Day,  September  21st. 

St.  George's  Day,  April  23d.  Michaelmas — St.  Michael  and  all  angels, 
St.  Mark's  Day,  April  25th.  September  29th. 

St.  Catharine's  Day,  April  30th.  St.  Luke's  Day,  October  i8th. 

Sts.  Phihp  and  James  the  Less,  May  ist.  All  Saints'  Dav,  November  ist. 

Invention  of  the  Cross,  May  3d.  All  Souls'  Day.  November  2d. 

Ember  Days,  first  Wednesday.  Friday,  St.  Martins'  Day.  November  nth. 

and  Saturday  after  Quodrigesima  Presentation  of  the  Virgin,  November 

Sunday.    Whitsunday,     Holyrood  21st. 

Day    (September   14th)    and    St. 

Lucy's  Day  (December  13th). 


INDEX 


347 


INDEX 


Abelard,  158. 

Abyssinian    Churches,    67,    86, 

109. 
Adoptionist  Controversy,  119. 
Adiaphoristic  Controversy,  204. 
Agape,  42. 
Albanenses,  164. 
Albert,  the  Great,  159. 
Albigenses,  164. 
Alexander  of  Hales,  159. 
Alfred,  the  Great,  132,  134. 
Alien  Baptism,  100-323  A.  D., 

41. 
Alva,  223. 

Ains worth,  Henry,  241. 
America,  Colonial  Period,  282f; 

1789-1914  A.  D.,  32of. 
Anabaptists,  212,  217,  229. 
Ancient  Church,  27. 
Anchorites,  93. 
Anderson,  Lars,  205. 
Anglican  Church,  279,  317. 
Anglo-Saxons,  113. 
Anselm,  158. 
Ansgar,  116. 
Anthropology,  87. 
Antinomian  Controversy,  204. 
Antitrinitarian         Controversy, 

231. 
Anton,  Paul,  268. 
Apollinarism,  82. 
Apostles'  Creed,  48. 
Apostolic  Era,  I7f. 
Apologetics,  ioa-323  A.  D.,  36. 
Appellants  and  Acceptants,  265. 
Aquinas,  Thomas,  160. 


Arianism,  63,  64f.,  78f.,  277. 
Archbishops,  39. 
Armada,  Spanish,  235. 
Armenia,  67. 
Armenian  Church,  86. 
Arminianism,  90;  Rise  of,  224. 
Art  and  Music,  255. 
Articles,  forty-two  (i553),  234; 

thirty-nine  (i559),  235. 
Asceticism,  323-600  A.  D.,  92. 
Aufklaerung,  271. 
Augsburg  Confession,  202. 
Augsburg,  Peace  of,  203,  252. 
Augustine,  113;  Vs.  Pelagius,  88* 
Augustinians,  152. 
Augustinus,  255. 
Austria,  1789-1914  A.  D.,  309. 

Babylonish  Captivity,  I75f. 

Bangorian  Controversy,  279. 

Baptists,  161 1  on,  236,  24if.; 
General,  242 ;  Particular,  242f . ; 
Calvinistic,  278;  Arminian, 
278;  American,  287,  326;  Ger- 
man, 308;  English,  318;  Sep- 
arate, 288;  Regular,  288. 

Baptism,  100-323  A.  D.,  4of.; 
323-600  A.  D.,  7 if. 

Barclay,  Robert,  244. 

Barbarossa,  14  if. 

Barrowe,  Henry,  241. 

Basel,  Council  of,  178. 

Beaton,  Cardinal,  225. 

Becket,  Thomas  a,  147,  233. 

Bede,  123. 

Belgic  Confession,  223. 


349 


350 


INDEX 


Bellarmine,  Robert,  254. 
Benedictine  Order,  94. 
Bernard  of  Clairvaux,  158,  160. 
Bible,  100-323  A.  D.,  47;  King 

James  Version  (161 1),  236. 
Blount,  Richard,  243. 
Bogomiles,  I28f. 
Bohemia,    251;    and    Moravia, 

Ref.  in,  208. 
Bohemian  Brethren,  208. 
Bonaventura,  159. 
Boniface,  115;  VIII,  148. 
Book,  of  Common  Prayer,  234;  of 

Discipline,  226;  of  Sports,  236. 
Breviary,  Roman,  250. 
British  America,  320. 
Broad  Church  Party,  316. 
Brothers  of  Common  Life,  182. 
Browne,  Robert,  240. 
Bulgaria,  291. 
Bullinger,  Henry,  213. 
Bunyan,  John,  243. 
Burgundians,  59f. 

Calixtines,  177. 
Calixtus,  George,  267. 
Calvin,  John,  216. 
Calvinistic  Churches,  1648-1789 

A.  D.,  272f. 
Calvinistic  Reformation,  2i5f. 
Camisard  War,  273. 
Campbell,        Alexander        and 

Thomas,  328. 
Canon  Law,  70. 
Canons  of  Scripture,  48. 
Capet,  Hugo,  132. 
Cappel  Wars,  213. 
Caraffa,  250. 
Carey,  William,  316. 
Carlovingians,  131,  133. 
Carthusians,  150. 
Cartwright,  Thomas,  236. 


Catechism,  Roman,  250. 

Catechumens,  46. 

Cathari,  164. 

Catholic  Church,  261,  264,  284, 
289,  299,  319,  330. 

Catholic  Reformation,  246ff. 

Celibacy,  68. 

Cenobites,  93. 

Ceremonies  for  Converts,  100- 
323  A.  D.,  41. 

Chalcedon  Council,  84. 

Charlemagne,  100,  106. 

Charles  I,  227,  236,  245. 

Charles  II,  228,  238,  245. 

Charles  V,  196,  20iff. 

Charles  IX,  220. 

Charles,  the  Bald,  130. 

Charles,  the  Fat,  i3of. 

Chinese  Government  vs.  Chris- 
tianity, 264. 

Christian  II,  205f. 

Christian  Activity,  i-ioo  A.  D., 

23- 

Christians  or  Disciples,  328. 

Christian  Life,  i-ioo  A.  D.,  22ff.; 
100-323  A.  D.,  44f.;  323-600 
A.  D.,  90fr.;  600-850  A.  D., 
I2if.;  1305-1517  A.D.,i8of.; 
1517-1648  A.  D.,  198;  Cal- 
vinistic, 216;  ZwingHan,  211. 

Christianity,  born,  8;  in  South 
Africa,  Australia,  and  New 
Zealand,  332 ;  in  Orient,  332f . 

Christianity,  Eastern,  600-850 
A.  D.,  loiff.;  850-1050  A.  D., 
I24fl.;  1050-1305  A.  D.,  I36f.; 
1305-1517  A.  D.,  i68f.;  1517- 
1648  A.  D.,  I9if.;  1648-1789 
A.  D.,  256f.;  1789-1914  A.  D., 
29of.  Western,  600-850  A.  D., 
iioff.;  850-1050  A.  D.,  i3of.; 
1050-1305  A.  D.,  i4ofif.;  1305- 


INDEX 


351 


1517  A.  D.,  i72fiE.;  1517- 
1648  A.  p.,  i95ff.;  1648-1789 
A.  D.,  257fiE.;  1789-1914  A.  D., 
295ff. 

Chronological  Divisions,  7. 

Church  and  State,  Calv.  Ref., 

215. 

Church  of  England,  285. 

Church:  Architecture,  1050-1305 
A.  D.,  162,  180.  Internal  His- 
tory, i-ioo  A.  D.,  i8f.;  100- 
323  A.  D.,  36f.;  323-600  A.  D., 
67!. ;  60Q-850  A.  D.,  I05f.; 
850-1050  A.  D.,  I34f.  Law, 
118.  Music,  1050-1305  A.  D., 
162;  1648-1789  A.  D.,  259. 
Officers,  100-323  A.  D.,  37f.; 
323-600  A.  D.,  67f.  Opposi- 
tion, ioa-323  A.  D.,3if.;  1050- 
1305  A.  D.,  i63f.  Ordinances, 
i-ioo  A.  D.,  22f.;  100-323 
A.  D.,  7 if.  Calv.  Ref.,  215. 
Zwinglian  Ref.,  211.  Organ- 
ization, 323-600  A.  D.,  69f.; 
151 7-1648  A.  D.,  I96f.;  Bap- 
tist, 327.     Methodist,  330. 

Cistercians,  182. 

Civil  Constitutions  of  Church, 
300. 

Clement  VII,  176. 

Clugniac  Reform,  144. 

Clugny,  Congregation  of,  135. 

Cocceius,  274. 

Coeur  de  Lion,  Richard,  153. 

Colet,  John,  184,  233. 

Colleges,  Catholic,  235. 

Colimiba,  65. 

Columban,  114. 

Commonwealth,  238. 

Communal  Houses,  230. 

Compromise  of  Breda,  223. 

Concordat  of  Pius  VII,  302, 


Concordat  of  Worms,  141. 

Condition  of  England  preced- 
ing Ref.,  232. 

Condition  of  England  1789-19 14 
A.  D.,  32if. 

Confession,  122,  162. 

Confirmation,  72. 

CongregationaHsts,  236,  279, 
286,  318,  322. 

Congregation    of    Propaganda, 

254. 
Congress  of  Ems,  262. 
Conrad  III,  153. 
Constantine,  58,  63. 
Consulate,  302. 
Controversies,   323-600   A.    D., 

78f.;  1537-92  A.  D.,  20of.  In 

CathoHc  Church,  254. 
Conventicle  Act,  239. 
Coptic  Chiu-ch,  86,  109. 
Corporation  Act,  238. 
Court,  Antoine,  274. 
Councils,     Seven     Great,     70; 

Classes  of,  70;  of  Constance, 

176;  of  Pisa,   176;  of  Trent, 

246;  List  of,  337. 
Covenanters,  275. 
Coverdale,  Miles,  234. 
Creeds,   Apostles',   48;   Nicene, 

79- 
Cromwell,  Oliver,  228,  238,  245. 
Cromwell,  Thomas,  233,  234. 
Crusades,  I52fl. 
Crusaders,  I37ff. 
Crypto-Calvinism,  204. 
Culture    B.    C,    lof.;    100-323 

A.  D.,  29f.,  45f. 
Cyril,  83,  126. 
Cyprian,  53. 

Danes  Massacred,  132. 
Danish-Halle  Mission,  259. 


35^ 


INDEX 


Decay  of  Heathenism  and 
Triumph  of  Christianity,  62. 

Declaration  of  Breda,  238. 

Declaration  of  Indulgence,  239. 

Deism,  277. 

Denmark,  Luth.  Ref.,  206;  1789- 
1914  A.  D.,  314. 

Denominations,  Rise  of,  240;  in 
U.  S.,  322f. 

Diet  of  Copenhagen,  206. 

Diet  of  Spires,  201. 

Diet  of  Worms,  200. 

Diocletian,  28. 

Directory,  301. 

Disciples,  328. 

Discipline,  i-ioo  A.  D.,  22f.; 
100-323  A.  D.,  46f.;  323-^00 
A.  D.,  91. 

Discoveries  and  Inventions,  182, 
298. 

Dissenters,  278. 

Divergences,  i-ioo  A.  D.,  2of. 

Divisions  of  Material,  7,  8;  be- 
tween Eastern  and  Western 
Churches,  85,  105. 

Doctrine,  i-ioo  A.  D.,  I9f.;  De- 
velopment of,  100-323  A.  D., 

47f. 
Dogmas,  70. 
Dominic,  151. 
Dominicans,  151,  1 56,  253. 
Donatism,  54f.,  62. 
Dositheus,    21;    Confession    of, 

192. 
Douay  Version,  235. 
Dutch  Anabaptists,  231. 

East  Goths,  60. 

Eastern  Empire,  Division  of,  58. 

Ebionites,  30. 

Ecclesiastical  Courts,  70. 

Ecclesiastical  Organization,  I96f. 


Eckhart,  Meister,  179. 
Economic  Conditions  B.  C,  10; 

100-323  A.  D.,  28. 
Ecumenical  Councils,  337. 
Edict   of    Nantes    and    Nimes, 

221,  273. 
Edict  of  Toleration,  274;  Worms, 

201. 
Educationally,   100-323  A.   D., 

45:  1789-1914  A.  D.,  298. 
Edward  I,  144. 
Edward  VI,  234,  244. 
Elizabeth,  244f. 
Empire,  the,  600-850  A.  D.,  loi ; 

1050-1305  A.  D.,  I4if.;  1305- 

1517  A.  D.,  I72flf. 
Emperors,    of    Roman    Empire, 

337f.;    Prankish,    339. 
England,  600-850  A.   D.,   no; 

850-1050  A.  D.,   132;   1050- 

1305  A.   D.,   143;   1305-1517 

A.  D.,  174;  1517-1689  A.  D., 

232f.;  1689-1789  A.  D.,  277; 

1789-1914  A.  D.,  315. 
Erasmus,  184,  233. 
Eucharist,  i-ioo  A.  D.,  22;  100- 

323  A.  D.,  42;  323-600  A.  D., 

72. 
Eucharistic  Controversy,  119. 
Eutychianism,  83. 
Evangelical  Church,  307. 

Farel,  William,  217,  218. 

Fasts,  100-323  A.  D.,  43. 

Federal  Theology,  274. 

Felicissimus,  53. 

Filioque  Controversy,  120. 

Five  Mile  Act,  239. 

Foreign    Missions,    Protestants, 

259- 
Formula  of  Concord,  204. 
Fox,  George,  243. 


INDEX 


353 


France,  850-1050  A.  D.,  I3if.; 

1050-1305  A.  D.,  143;  1305- 

1517  A.  D.,  173;  Ref.  of,  218; 

1648-1789  A.  D.,  261;  1789- 

1914  A.  D.,  311. 
Francis  I,  196. 
Francis  of  Assisi,  151,  159. 
Franciscans,  151,  156,  253. 
Francke,  A.  H.,  268. 
Franks,  28,  60,  11  of. 
Frederick  I  (Barbarossa),  14 if. 
Frederick  II,  142,  154. 
Frederick  IV,  269. 
Frederick  of  Bohemia,  251. 
Free  Church  of  Scotland,  314. 
French  Empire,  303. 
French  Protestants,  273,  312. 
French  Reaction,  301,  303,  311. 
French  Revolution,  299. 
Frisians,  115. 

Geddes,  Jennie,  227. 
Geneva  Reform,  217. 
Geneva  Version,  226. 
German  Anabaptists,  230. 
German  Bund,  303. 
German  Reformed  Church,  273. 
German  Theology,  307. 
German  Tribes,  58f. 
Germans,  Conversion  of,  64,  66, 

80,  114. 
Germany,  850-1050  A.  D.,  I30f., 

179;  Ref.  in,   I99ff.;  Ref.  in 

South,  209;  1789-1914  A.  D., 

3o6f. 
Gillespie,  Thomas,  275. 
Gnosticism,  50. 
Goths,  28. 
Government,      Roman,      i-ioo 

A.  D.,  9. 
Greece,  291. 
Greek  Philosophy,  11. 


Greenwood,  John,  241. 
Gregory  VII,  113,  141,  145,  146. 
Guise  Family,  2i9f. 
Gustavus  Adolphus,  206,  252. 
Gimpowder  Plot,  236. 
Guyon,  Madame,  265. 

Hadrian,  27. 

Hadrian  IV,  144. 

Haller,  Berthold,  213. 

Hampden  Court  Conference,  236. 

Heidelberg  Catechism,  223. 

Helwys,  242. 

Helvetic  Confession,  213,  214. 

Henricans,  164. 

Henry  I,  131. 

Henry  II,  144,  147,  219. 

Henry  III,  131,  134,  144. 

Henry  IV,  141. 

Henry  VIII,  196,  201, 2325.,  244. 

Henry  of  Navarre,  220,  221. 

Herbert  of  Cherbury,  278. 

Heresies,  21,  50,  I28f. 

Hierarchy,  600-850  A.  D.,  Ii7f.; 

1050-1305  A.  D.,  I48f. 
High  Church  Party,  316. 
Higher  Clergy,  121. 
Hildebrand,  145. 
Hippo,  Council  of,  48. 
Hoffman,  Melchior,  231. 
Holland  and  Belgium,  313. 
Holliman,  288. 
Holy  Orthodox  Eastern  Church, 

loi. 
Hubmeier,  Balthasar,  230. 
Huguenots,  219,  273. 
Humanism,  178,  184,  212. 
Hungary,  Ref.  in,  2o8f. 
Hims,  60. 

Huss,  John,  176,  186. 
Hussites,  i86f. 
Iceland,  207. 


354 


INDEX 


Iconoclastic  Controversy,  103, 
105,  124,  213. 

Immaculate  Conception,  304. 

Independents,  240. 

Indulgences,  122,  i62f.,  180,  200. 

Innocent  III,  I47f.,  I53- 

Inquisition,  the,  166,  180;  Re- 
organized,    250;     Abolished, 

311- 

Invention,  182,  298. 

Investiture,  68,  141,  I45f. 

Ireland,  65;  Ref.  of,  244,  319. 

Irene,  106. 

Irish  Massacre,  245. 

Irish  Mission,  114. 

Isidore,  123. 

Italy,  1050-1305  A.  D.,  140; 
1305-15 17  A.  D.,  173;  Ref.  in, 
209f.;  1789-1914  A.  D.,  309. 

Jacob,  Henry,  241. 

Jacobites,  128. 

Jacobite  Church,  86,  109,  294. 

James  I,  227,  236f.,  245. 

James  II,  239,  245. 

James  V,  225. 

Jansen,  Cornelius,  255. 

Jansenism,  264. 

Jerome,  66. 

Jesuits,  210,  246,  248f.,  250,  253, 

263;  Suppression  of,  265,  283. 
Jewish  Heresies,  100-323  A.  D., 

5of.;  Missions,  29f. 
Jews,  33if. 

John  of  England,  144,  148. 
John  XXII,  172.- 
John  XXIII,  176. 
Johnson,  Francis,  241. 
Jovian,  64. 

Judaistic  Controversy,  20. 
Judson,  Adoniram,  327. 
Justinian,  61,  85. 


Kempis,  Thomas  ii,  179. 
Kiev,  Patriarch  of,  126,  139. 
Kings,  Lists,  339. 
Knights  of  Saint  John,  155. 
Knights  Templars,  155,  18 1. 
Knox,  John,  226ff. 

Lambeth  Articles,  236. 
Lateran  Council,  148. 
Land,  William,  237. 
Le  Fevre,  Jacques,  218. 
Legislative  Assembly,  300. 
Leo  III,  103,  105. 
Leo  XIII,  305. 
Leo,  the  Isaurian,  105. 
Literatiu-e,    i-ioo  A.   D.,   23f.; 
iOQ-323    A.    D.,    34f.,    56f.; 
323-600  A.  D.,  94f.;  600-850 
A.  D.,  I22f.;    and   Learning, 
1050-1305  A.  D.,  167;  1648- 
1789  A.  D.,  258;  Catholic,  266. 
Literary  Attacks  on  Christian- 
ity, 100-323  A.  D.,  34f. 
Liturgy,  160. 
Lollard  Doctrines,  231. 
Lombards,   61,    iii;   Cities  of, 

141. 
Louis,  the  Pious,  130. 
Louis,  the  Child,  131. 
Louis  VII,  153. 
Louis  IX,  154. 
Louis  XIV,  261. 
Low  Church  Party,  316. 
Lower  Clergy,  121. 
Loyola,  Ignatius,  248. 
Lucar,  Cyril,  192. 
Lim^ville,  Peace  of,  302. 
Luther,  Life  of,  I99f. 
Lutheran  Churches,  26f.,  289, 330. 
Lutheran    Reformation,     15 17- 
1648  A.  D.,  I99f.;  1648-1789 
A.  D.,  267f. 


INDEX 


355 


Lutherans  in  U.  S.,  289. 
Lutkens,  269. 

Magus,  Simon,  21. 

Manichaeism,  55. 

Marburg  Conference,  212. 

Marcion,  51. 

Marcus  Aurelius,  27. 

Mariolatry,  76,  83,  161. 

Maronites,  109. 

Martel,  Charles,  102,  no. 

Martin  V,  176. 

Mart3rrs,  under  Mary,  234. 

Mary  of  Guise,  22 5f. 

Mary  of  England,  234. 

Mary  Stuart,  235. 

Massacre  of  Saint  Bartholo- 
mew's Eve,  220. 

Massilians,  90. 

Mathys,  Jan,  231. 

Matthew's  Bible,  234. 

Maximilian  II,  208. 

Maximilian  of  Bavaria,  251. 

Mediating  School,  308. 

Medici  Family,  173. 

Medici,  Catherine  de,  220. 

Meianchthon,  Philip,  200. 

Melchites,  192. 

Menander,  21. 

Mendicant  Order,  i5of. 

Mennonites,  231. 

Methodism,  260,  279,  289. 

Methodists,  in  England,  318;  in 
U.  S.,  329. 

Methodius,  126. 

Metropolitans,  39. 

Meyer,  Sebastian,  213. 

Middle  Ages,  99ff. 

Millenary  Petition,  236. 

Missionary  Union,  327. 

Missions,  i-ioo  A.  D.,  I7f.;  100- 
323  A.  D.,  29f.;  323-600  A.  D., 


62f.;  600-850  A.  D.,  ii2ff.; 
850-1050  A.  D.,  I25f.,  134; 
1050-1305  A.  D.,  155;  1517- 
1648  A.  D.,  196;  Baptist  in 
U.  S.,  327;  Catholic,  253,  263, 
305;  Protestant,  259,  269,  315, 
317,  318;  Eastern,  I25f,; 
Lutheran,  269. 

Modernism,  305. 

Moderatism,  276. 

Modern  Period,  I9iff. 

Mogilos,  Peter,  192. 

Mohammedanism,  99f.,  I04f., 
290. 

Molino,  Louis,  254. 

Molinos,  Michael,  265. 

Monasticism,  9if.,  118,  l5of.; 
Revival,  247. 

Mongols,  Missions  to,  156. 

Monks,  12  if. 

Monophysite  Churches,  io8f. 

Monophysitism,  67,  83,  108. 

Monothelite  Controversy,  86. 

Montanism,  52. 

Montenegro,  293. 

Morality,  I2f.,  23,  9of.,  181, 239f. 

Moravians,  259,  270. 

More,  Thomas,  185,  233. 

Mormons,  331. 

Morton,  242. 

Munster  Kingdom,  231. 

Munzer,  Thomas,  230. 

Music,  255,  259. 

Mystics,  179. 

Napoleon,  30 if. 

National  Assembly,  299;  Church, 
292;  Convention,  301;  Cov- 
enant, 227. 

Nazarenes,  30. 

Netherlands,  22  if. 

Nestorians,  66,  82,  108,  294. 


356 


INDEX 


New  Jerusalem  Church,  271. 
New  Lights,  287. 
Newspapers,  259. 
Nicea,  Council  of,  63. 
Nicene  Creed,  79. 
Nicholas  I,  133. 
Nicholas  V,  178. 
Nicolaitans,  the,  21. 
Non  Jurors,  279. 
Normans,  140,  144. 
North  America,  284. 
Northmen,  134. 
Norway,  Ref.  in,  206. 
Novatianism,  54. 

Oecolampadius,  213. 

Old  Roman  Catholic  Church  of 

the  Netherlands,  263. 
Organization,  Modern,  322. 
Originistic  Controversy,  81. 
Orthodox    Church    in    Turkey, 
"  290. 
Orthodox      Dutch      Reformed 

Church,  274. 
Osiander  Controversy,  204. 
Otto  I,  131. 
Otto  III,  133. 
Otto,  the  Great,  133. 

Papacy,   6o(>-85o   A.    D.,    117; 

850-1050  A.  D.,  I33f.;  1050- 

1305  A.  D.,   144;   1418-1517 

A.  D.,  I77f. 
Papal  Envoys,  261. 
Papal  States,  iii. 
Parthians,  28. 
Patriarch     of     Constantinople, 

290. 
Patrick,  65. 

Patrimony  of  Peter,  62,  iii. 
Paulicians,  107,  128. 
Peace  of  Augsburg,  252. 


Peace  of  Crespy,  203. 

Peace  of  Dessidents,  207. 

Peace  of  Lun6ville,  302. 

Peace  of  Nuremburg,  202. 

Peace  of  Westphalia,  252. 

Peasants'  War,  230. 

Pelagian  Controversy,  87. 

Pelagianism,  254. 

Penance,  162. 

Pepin,  the  Middle,  no. 

Pepin,  the  Short,  in. 

Persecution,  32f.,  181. 

Persia,  66,  156. 

Peter,  the  Hermit,  152. 

Peter,  the  Lombard,  158. 

Peterson,  Olaf  and  Lars,  205. 

Petrobrusians,  164. 

Philadelphia  Confession,  288. 

Philip  II,  143,  153,  222f. 

Philosophy,  258,  298f. 

Pietism,  269. 

Pius  IX,  304. 

Pius  X,  305. 

Poland,  Ref.  in,  207. 

Pole,  Reginald,  234. 

Political  History,  i-ioo  A.  D. 
9f.;  100-323  A.  D.,  27f.;  323- 
600  A.  D.,  58f.;  600-850  A.  D., 
loiff.;  1050-1305  A.  D.,  i4of.; 
1305-1517  A.  D.,  I72ff.;  1517- 
1648  A.D.,  191,193;  1648-1789 
A.  D.,  257ff .  In  America,  282 ; 
1789-1914  A.  D.,  295fif.  Ger- 
many, 306. 

Polity  of  Calv.  Ref.,  215. 

Pope,  Recognized  by  Pepin,  ill. 

Popes,  List  of,  335ff. 

Pornocracy,  the,  133. 

Portugal,  311. 

Preachers,  great,  323-600  A.  D., 
78. 

Preaching,  1050-1305  A.  D.,  160. 


INDEX 


357 


Predestination  Controversy,  119. 
Premonstratensians,  150. 
Presbyterians,  278,  286,  318,  325. 
Probus,  28. 
Protestant    Episcopal    Church, 

324. 
Protestants,    202;    in    America, 

284;  in  East,  294. 
Provincial  Letters,  264. 
Provincial  Synods,  37. 
Prussia,  Ref.  in,  207. 
Pseudo-Isidorian  Decretals,  117- 
Puritan  Party,  235,  277. 

Quakers,  236,  243,  279,  289,  318. 
Quietism,  265. 

Races  and  their  Distribution,  i- 
100  A.  D.,  9!. 

Raikes,  Robert,  316. 

Rationalism,  257,  307,  315. 

Rabaut,  Paul,  274. 

Reaction  in  England,  234. 

Reformation,  19  iff. 

Reform  Movements,  iSsf. 

Relation  of  Catholic  Church  to 
Civil  Government,  261. 

Relief  Church,  276. 

Religion,  i-ioo  A.  D.,  11; 
100-323  A.  D.,  29;  323-600 
A.  D.,  62;  1689-1789  A.  D., 
259;  1789-1914  A.  D.,  296; 
in  Germany,  307. 

Religious    Freedom,    238,    239, 

259. 
Rehgious  Tract  Society,  316. 
Remonstrants,  274. 
Renaissance,  i83ff.,  194. 
Reuchlin,  184. 
Reunion,  Efforts  at,  128,  i69f., 

178. 
Ricci,  253,  263. 


Rice,  Luther,  327. 

Richelieu,  252. 

Right  of  Regalia  Controversy, 

261. 
Ritschl,  Albrecht,  308. 
Robinson,  John,  241. 
Roman  Bishop,  69. 
Roman  Church,  40. 
Rumania,  292. 
Russia,    193,    293;    Church    of, 

i7of.,  193. 
Russians  receiving  Christianity, 

126. 

Saint  Worship,  76. 

Saint  Cyran,  264. 

Saint  Victor,  School  of,  158. 

Salvation  Army,  316,  319. 

Savonarola,  Jerome,  187. 

Sassinides,  28,  66. 

Savoy  Declaration,  241. 

Saxons,  113,  116. 

Scandinavian  Countries,  600- 
850  A.  D.,  112;  850-1050 
A.  D.,  134;  1305-1517  A.  D., 
175;  Missions,  116;  Ref.  in, 
205f.;  314. 

Schism,  the  Great,  176. 

Schisms,    100-323   A.    D.,    54f., 

I27f. 

Schmaldkald  League,  202;  War, 

203. 
Scholasticism,  I56f. 
Schools,  Theological,  68. 
Scotland,    323-600   A.    D.,    65; 

1517-1648  A.  D.,  225;  1648- 

1789  A.   D.,  275;   1789-1914 

A.  D.,  314. 
Scotus,  John  Duns,  160. 
Secession  Church,  275. 
Sects,  1 050- 1 305  A.  D.,  i63ff. 
Separates,  287. 


358 


INDEX 


Servia,  291. 

Sigismund  III,  208. 

Signs  and  Helps  to  New  Age, 

l82f. 

Slavs,  103,  125. 

Smith,  Joseph,  331. 

Smyth,  John,  241. 

Socinianism,  277!. 

Socinius,  Faustus,  231. 

Solemn  League  and  Covenant, 

227,  237. 
Spain,    850-1050    A.    D.,    132; 

1 050- 1 305  A.  D.,  143;  1305- 

1517  A.  D.,  I74f.;  Ref.  in,  210; 

and  Portugal,  310. 
Spanish  Peninsula,  174. 
Spener,  P.  J.,  268. 
Spilsbury,  John,  242!. 
Storch,  Nicholas,  230. 
Subordination   (Logos  Christol- 

ogy),  49- 
Sunday  Schools,  316,  322. 
Suppression  of  Monasteries,  233. 
Sweden,  Ref.  in,  205,  314. 
Swedenborg,  Emanuel,  271. 
Swiss     Moravian     Anabaptists, 

230. 
Switzerland,  Ref.  in,  216,  312 
Syllabus  of  Errors,  304. 
Syncretistic  Controversy,  267. 
Synergistic  Controversy,  204. 
Synod  of  the  Desert,  274. 
S3^od  of  Dort,  223. 

Taborites,  177. 
Tacitus,  28. 
Tauler,  John,  179. 
Tausen,  Hans,  206. 
Taylor,  Dan,  278. 
Test  Act,  239. 
Teutonic  Order,  155. 
Theodora,  106. 


Theodore  of  Mopsuestia,  82. 

Theodoric,  the  Great,  4of. 

Theodosius,  64. 

Theology,  100-323  A.  D.,  48; 
323-600  A.  D.,  78f.;  600-850 
A.  D.,  ii9f.;  850-1050  A.  D., 
135;  1050-1305  A.  D.,  I56f.; 
1305-1517  A.  D.,  I78f.;  1517- 
1648  A.  D.,  197;  Calv.,  215; 
Catholic,  254. 

Thought,  298. 

Thirty  Years'  War,  246,  25ifiF. 

Tilly,  251,  252. 

Toleration  Act,  239. 

Trajan,  27. 

Tractarian  Movement,  317. 

Translations,  30,  67,  225,  234. 

Transubstantiation  Controversy, 

157. 
Transylvania,  Ref.  in,  208f. 
Tridentine  Creed,  247. 
Triers,  Board  of,  238. 
Trinitarian  Controversy,  78. 
Turks,  i68ff. 
Tyndal's  Eng.  N.  T.,  225,  233. 

Umias,  66. 

Ultramontanism,  303. 
Uniformity,  Act  of,  235,  239. 
Unigenitus  Bull,  265. 
Unitarianism,  231,  323. 
United  Brethren,  270. 
United  Presbyterian  Church  of 

Scotland,  315. 
United  Secession  Church,  275. 
United  States,  321. 
Universalism,  324. 
Universities,  167. 
Urban  II,  152. 
Urban  VI,  176. 

Vandals,  59. 


INDEX 


359 


Vatican  Council,  304. 

Vernacular,  Rise  of,  183. 

Von  Weltz,  Baron  Justinian,  269. 

Waldenses,  165!.,  210,  219. 
Waldo,  Peter,  165. 
Wallenstein,  252. 
War  of  Roses,  174,  232. 
Wesley,  Charles  and  John,  279. 
Westminster     Confession,     228, 

237. 
Westminster  Assembly,  228, 237. 
West  Goths,  59f. 
Westphalia,  Peace  of,  252,  261. 
Whitefield,  George,  279. 
William,  the  Conqueror,  I43f. 
WilUam,  of  Orange,  239. 
Williams,  Roger,  288. 
Willibrord,  115. 
Wishart,  George,  225. 
Wolf,  Christian,  269. 


Wolsey,  233. 

World  into  which  Christianity 
Came,  8f. 

Worship,  i-ioo  A.  D.,  2if.;  100- 
323  A.  D.,  42f. ;  323-600  A.  D., 
73f.;  600-850  A.  D.,  io5f., 
I20f.;  1050-1305  A.  D.,  i6off.; 
1305-1517  A.  D.,  I79f.;  1517- 
1648  A.  D.,  I97f.;  Calv.  Ref., 
216;  Zwing.  Ref.,  211. 

Wychff,  John,  i85f. 

Xavier,  249,  253. 
Ximines,  185. 

Y.  M.  C.  A.,  316. 

Zinzendorf,  Count,  270. 
Zoroastrianism,  66. 
Zwickau,  230. 
Zwinglian  Ref,,  2iifiL 
Zwingle,  Huldreich,  212. 


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